Europe
2.1 European Physical Geography and Boundaries
Defining Europe's Geographical Boundaries
The definition of Europe's boundaries is not clear cut; the continent is traditionally seen as the western extremity of the Eurasian landmass.
The eastern border is conventionally marked by the Ural Mountains, running north to south from the Arctic Ocean through Russia to Kazakhstan.
This means that western Russia, including cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow, is geographically considered part of Europe, while eastern Russia is part of Asia.
Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean and its seas to the west, and the Mediterranean and Black Seas to the south.
Within Europe, the Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathian mountain ranges separate the southern Alpine region from the hilly central uplands.
Northern Europe is characterized by flat lowlands, while western highlands include the Scandinavian Mountains and the Scottish Highlands.
Europe's Waterways and Climate
Europe is noted for its many navigable waterways and proximity to the sea, which has historically facilitated trade and maritime travel.
The Danube River, Europe's largest, flows 2,860 km (1,780 mi) through 10 countries from Germany to Ukraine.
Despite its high latitude, Europe has a relatively temperate climate due to the Gulf Stream, which brings warm water and winds from the Atlantic.
For example, Amsterdam and Saskatoon, Canada, are at similar latitudes, but Amsterdam's average low in January is 0.8°C (33.4°F), while Saskatoon’s average low is -20.7°C (-5.3°F).
Europe's Relative Location and Connectivity
Europe is located at the heart of the land hemisphere, the half of the world containing most of the landmass.
This location, together with its numerous navigable waterways, has allowed for maximum contact with the rest of the world.
Distances between countries in Europe are relatively small, which has contributed to efficient travel and historical interconnectedness.
For example, Paris is just a two-hour high speed train trip from London.
The interconnectedness of European people is long-standing, with overlapping histories, physical features, and resources.
2.2 Cooperation and Control in Europe
Historical Development and Cultural Foundations
Early human migration into Europe likely occurred through the Caucasus Mountains and across the Bosporus Strait from what is now Turkey into Greece.
The Greeks provided crucial cultural and political foundations for modern European society, with ideals of democracy, humanism, and rationalism reemerging during the Age of Enlightenment.
The Roman Empire expanded upon Greek influence, leaving its mark on European architecture, governance, and language.
The Roman Empire united the region under Christianity and created new networks of roads and trading ports.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, tribal and ethnic allegiances reemerged, leading to invasions and migrations, such as the settlement of England by the Germanic Anglo-Saxons and later by the Normans.
Political Evolution and Shifting Boundaries
Historically, Europe was dominated by kingdoms and empires, and a map of the continent just 200 years ago would look significantly different from today.
Many of the countries and political boundaries of Europe we know today were not formed until after World War II.
For example, Greece and Turkey were controlled by the Ottoman Empire, and Italy was a collection of city-states and independent kingdoms.
The political map of Europe continues to evolve due to shifting alliances, competing goals, and pushes for independence.
Devolution, where regions seek greater autonomy, is a continuing trend, reflecting the tension between nationalistic ideals and ethnic ties.
In the United Kingdom, a Scottish independence referendum led to greater autonomy for Scotland.
Economic and Political Integration
Western Europe has generally moved toward cooperation, exemplified by the development of the European Union (EU).
The EU developed from the Benelux Economic Union in 1944, expanding to include France, Italy, and West Germany and then further.
The EU itself was created in 1993 and today includes 27 member countries.
Not all EU members use the euro, the official currency; the 19 member states who do are known as the eurozone.
The Schengen Agreement allows member states to function as a single territory regarding entry, with a common visa system.
The United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU, known as Brexit, was finalized in January 2020.
Joining a supranational organization like the EU involves giving up some sovereignty, in the hopes of gaining more benefits.
Challenges and Conflicts
The EU has faced challenges such as Greece's ongoing debt issues, which have required bailouts from other member states.
Strong ethnic identities in the Balkan region have contributed to political instability and the formation of new states.
The term Balkanization refers to the tendency of territories to break up into smaller, often hostile units.
The region came under control of the Ottoman Empire, and after its collapse, several territories were joined as Yugoslavia.
Ethnic tensions in Yugoslavia led to a genocidal campaign against Croats, Bosnians, and Albanians in the 1990s.
Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, though its status remains contested by some.
The country formerly known as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia officially changed its name to the Republic of North Macedonia in 2019, resolving a dispute with Greece.
Socioeconomic Disparities
Europe's population has shifted from largely feudal and agrarian to where around 75 percent live in cities.
London is the largest city in Europe with a population of around 8.5 million within its city limits.
While the United Kingdom was dominant during industrialization, Germany now leads in population, GDP, and size.
Significant disparities in GDP per capita exist between Western and Eastern European states.
For example, Germany's GDP per capita was $44,470 in 2017, while Moldova's was $2,290.
Geographical Considerations
The Ural Mountains are traditionally considered the eastern boundary of Europe [our conversation history].
Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean and Black Seas to the south [our conversation history].
The Danube River is Europe's largest, flowing through ten countries [our conversation history].
Europe's climate is relatively temperate due to the Gulf Stream [our conversation history].
2.3 The Industrial Revolution
Impact of the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution, which occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, significantly shaped the differences in development levels across Europe. This revolution refers to changes in manufacturing, which had profound effects on society, economics, and agriculture globally.
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, goods were primarily produced in homes through "cottage" industries, with individual workers creating unique products.
A key invention that spurred the Industrial Revolution was James Watt's steam engine in 1775. The steam engine allowed for factory production, which replaced human and animal labor, and it also improved iron production.
The improvements and new technologies associated with the Industrial Revolution gradually spread across Europe and eventually diffused to the United States and Japan.
The Industrial Revolution improved European power by boosting their economies, improving military technology, and increasing transportation efficiency.
The core economic area of Europe today is centered around the manufacturing areas that arose during the Industrial Revolution, and these areas were initially located near raw materials such as coal.
The shift in labor from rural farms to factories during the Industrial Revolution led to the specialization of labor that exists in Europe today.
The Agrarian Revolution
The Agrarian Revolution, which began in the mid-1750s, involved agricultural innovations, such as mechanized equipment, fertilizers, and crop rotation, which increased crop yields.
This period saw a shift from subsistence agriculture to commercial agriculture, where excess crops are sold for profit.
The Agrarian Revolution, coupled with the Industrial Revolution, led to a population increase due to agricultural surpluses.
The Agrarian Revolution freed workers from farming, enabling them to find work in factories, which dramatically increased urbanization in Europe.
Transportation and Infrastructure
Improvements in rail transportation changed the way goods were distributed and people moved across Europe.
The use of steam engines and improved iron also transformed the shipping industry.
Political and Social Changes
The French Revolution, which occurred between 1789 and 1799, ended France's monarchy and established a republic, influencing numerous political revolutions that followed.
The French Revolution weakened the power of the Roman Catholic Church in France, inspiring the modern separation of church and state.
The map of Europe today reflects the changes brought about by the Industrial and Agrarian Revolutions as well as political changes.
European colonialism began in the 1400s and was expanded by the improvements of the Industrial Revolution, leading to the British Empire becoming the largest in history by the start of World War I.
Economic Specialization and Manufacturing
Areas within Europe have tended to specialize in the production of particular goods, such as textiles in Northern Italy and automotive manufacturing in Germany.
Regions benefited from economies of scale, as increased production lowered the cost per unit.
Many areas in Europe have shifted from more traditional to high-tech manufacturing, maintaining a high level of industrial output.
2.4 European Migration
Migration Patterns and Their Drivers
The Industrial and Agricultural Revolutions significantly shaped migration patterns within Europe, causing a shift from rural to urban areas as people moved from farms to cities in search of work. This intraregional migration contributed to the rapid growth of cities as centers of trade and industry.
Migration is defined as a permanent move from one place to another. Geographers study both intraregional migration (within a region) and interregional migration (between regions), as well as the push and pull factors influencing these moves.
Push factors force people to leave their current location and include lack of job opportunities, environmental hazards, and political unrest.
Pull factors entice people to move to a new location, such as ample job opportunities, freedom from persecution, and desirable amenities.
Historical Migrations and Diasporas
Before the Industrial Revolution, migration often took the form of invasions, such as those by the Roman, Islamic, and Ottoman Empires.
The Jewish diaspora was a notable historical migration not linked to an invading empire.
Following the conquest of Judea by groups including the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Romans, many Jewish people moved to Europe to escape violence and persecution.
A diaspora refers to a group of people living outside their ancestral homeland.
Anti-Semitism was a recurring issue for Jewish people in Europe. They faced attacks and expulsions during the Middle Ages. Jewish communities were destroyed during the Black Death epidemic in the mid-14th century, when they were falsely accused of causing the disease.
European Jews were often forced to live in distinct neighborhoods known as ghettos.
Post-War and Modern Migration
The Holocaust, which occurred during the Nazi regime in Germany, resulted in the deaths of 6 million European Jews. Following the war, many surviving Jews emigrated to the newly created state of Israel.
After the signing of the Schengen Agreement in 1995, large numbers of immigrants from Eastern Europe migrated to Western European countries.
Citizens of EU countries are permitted to live and work in any other EU country. About half of all European migrants are from other countries within Europe.
Economic and political inequalities have driven much of the interregional migration to Europe since the 1980s.
Immigrants from North Africa and Southwest Asia, driven by limited employment opportunities and political conflicts, now represent around 12 percent of all European migrants.
Economic and Social Impacts
The Industrial Revolution spurred significant economic growth and urbanization. It created a shift from rural agricultural labor to urban factory work, which created specialized jobs.
The Agrarian Revolution also led to population growth due to agricultural surpluses and further urbanization as people left farms [our conversation history].
2.5 Shifting National Identities
National Identity and the Nation-State
National identity can be complex and is not always tied to a single ethnicity. While it might seem that being European means being from Europe, the reality is that individual countries within Europe, like France, Germany, Spain, and the UK, have long contained multiple ethnic and linguistic groups. For example, Spain includes Basque and Catalan speakers in addition to the historic Castilian Spanish speakers. The UK includes English, Welsh, Scottish, and Northern Irish groups, each with distinct cultural identities.
Before the creation of modern states, Europe was divided largely by ethnicity or tribe, and family allegiances were of fundamental importance. The creation of sovereign political states changed this notion, with multiple ethnicities often grouped together under single political entities.
A nation-state is a state dominated by a single, homogeneous ethnic and linguistic cultural identity. Several European countries are considered nation-states, such as Poland and Iceland. Historically, France and Germany were also considered nation-states.
The concept of a nation-state is distinct from nationalism, which refers to the feeling of political unity within a territory. National flags, anthems, and symbols inspire a sense of belonging amongst people within a geographic area, distinct from their ethnic identity.
Nationalism and its Extremes
When feelings of nationalism and national identity are linked with a particular ethnic group, it can lead to the exclusion of minority ethnic groups.
Historically, the idea of nationalism has been linked to excluding certain groups. For example, in 1290 CE, King Edward I expelled all Jews from England, establishing Christianity as the core of English national identity. Similarly, in Nazi Germany, the idea of being "German" excluded Jews, Roma, and other groups deemed "undesirable". Under Mussolini, Italian nationalism excluded Slavs, Jews, and non-white groups.
Fascism is an extreme form of nationalism where national unity includes a strong, authoritarian leader and a one-party state, often blaming economic difficulty or military losses on groups that threaten national unity, including their own citizens.
Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
Within every country, ideas of nationalism grow, weaken, and change over time. Centrifugal forces are those that threaten national unity by dividing a state, such as differing religious beliefs, linguistic differences, or even physical barriers within a state.
Centripetal forces, on the other hand, tend to unify people within a country, such as a charismatic leader, a common religion or language, and a strong national infrastructure. Governments can also promote centripetal forces by unifying citizens against a common enemy.
Historically, religion often worked as a centripetal force in Europe, uniting varying cultural groups under a common theological banner. However, religious adherence in Europe is shifting.
Secularization and Social Welfare
There is a broad shift in Europe from traditional, organized religion toward humanism or secularism. In Sweden, for example, there has been a significant drop in church membership and belief in a personal God.
Secularism refers to the exclusion of religious ideologies from government or public activities. Many researchers link secularization with rising economic prosperity.
Most Western European countries have strong social welfare programs that serve as centripetal forces, unifying a country by providing government support and preventing citizens from falling into extreme poverty.
Migration and its Impact
Migration has continually changed the cultural landscape of Europe.
The sources discuss migration in a historical context but do not explore the major drivers and impacts of migration like the conversation history did.
2.6 Current Migration Patterns and Debates
Migration and Shifting Demographics
Increased migration to Europe is driven by the hope of economic prosperity and political freedom. Many migrants come from North Africa and Southwest Asia.
Muslim populations in Europe are growing due to high fertility rates and increased immigration. In 2010, around 6% of Europe identified as Muslim, and that number is expected to reach 10% by 2050.
In contrast, the Christian population in Europe is decreasing. In 2010, just under three-quarters of Europeans identified as Christian, with a projected drop to 65% in 2050.
Migration to Europe intensified in 2014 and 2015 due to the civil war in Syria, with 2015 seeing a record 65.3 million people displaced.
Many migrants attempt to cross by sea into Greece, and these journeys can be dangerous, with overcrowded boats and capsizing being common. Around 34% of refugees are children, many of them unaccompanied.
The influx of refugees, while representing a small percentage of Europe's population (around 0.5%), raises concerns about how immigrant populations might change the identity of nation-states.
Small towns in Europe have experienced demographic shifts as people move to cities for work and immigrants move in to fill available jobs. Deindustrialization has led higher-skilled workers to migrate to cities, while lower-skilled immigrants often take jobs in these small towns.
Europe continues to be an attractive destination for migrants.
European Attitudes Toward Immigration
Europeans are divided on how open the region should be to immigrants and how asylum seekers should be treated.
A survey from 2012-2014 showed that most Europeans (52%) wanted immigration levels to decrease.
There are varying opinions across the region. For example, 69% of people in the UK and 84% of people in Greece support decreased immigration. Conversely, a majority in Northern European countries want immigration to stay the same or increase.
Social and Ethical Considerations
Some view the debate over immigration and asylum as a matter of social justice, questioning whether countries with political freedom and economic prosperity have a moral obligation to assist those in need.
Historically, Western European countries have often not accepted refugees. For example, in 1938 they voted against accepting Jewish refugees from Germany and Austria, and many countries have voted against accepting Syrian migrants.
Germany has accepted a relatively large number of asylum seekers and has been critical of other countries for not doing so. Sweden has argued that if every country in Europe accepted a proportional amount of refugees, they would be easily accommodated.
Refugee populations typically have lower unemployment rates than native-born populations, and though they require social services, they can provide a long-term economic boost by increasing the labor force.
National Identity and Secularization
The increasing secularization of Western Europe has amplified the conflict over immigration. Western Europeans have become less religious over time, while immigrants to the region are generally more religious.
The sources note that Europe's population will continue to shift in terms of demographics and cultural identity.