Background

III. Benefits of ChatGPT in Learning (Cami)

The evolution of artificial intelligence significantly impacts teaching approaches in higher education. Many educational studies suggest that ChatGPT can enrich personalized learning experiences by using algorithms to track users' progress and adjust the learning material to their needs and capabilities, and this can make the learning experience more engaging and efficient as learners are exposed to material tailored to their learning styles and pace and foster higher-order thinking by engaging users with questions and alternative perspectives (Kessler, 2018; Yatani et al., 2024). Researchers highlight that the enhancement of flexibility, autonomy, and comprehensiveness in the learning environment brought by ChatGPT is believed to provide various benefits to learners (Heimans et al., 2023; Mohamed, 2023; Rospigliosi, 2023).

VI. Enhancing Student Learning Experience (Cami)

ChatGPT primarily enhances students' learning experience in higher education by generating innovative outputs through user interaction. It serves as an assistant for writing, teaches methods in art and design, and supports research activities (Chan & Hu, 2023; Kasneci et al., 2023). The increasing technology integration in higher education indicates educators' attempts to improve the instruction and learning experience through emerging technologies and ICT (Berawi, 2020a; Godin & Terekhova, 2021), including blended learning web tools such as Kahoots, Padlet, blogs, simulations, and social media. The advantage of AI with conventional teaching approaches is that EFL teachers can foster a more productive and effective learning atmosphere for their students, resulting in better academic results (Almurtadha, 2019).

AI language learning tools provide personalized experiences tailored to individual needs and progress, allowing students to save time by automating tasks (Xie et al., 2019). AI devices give rapid feedback, allowing students to determine their strengths and weaknesses in real time, which improves their language learning process (Porter & Grippa, 2020).

V. Importance of Information Literacy (Cami)

A. Critical Thinking Skills
B. Evaluating Information Credibility

Main Ideas

Shift to Online Learning: Higher education institutions are increasingly adopting online learning, necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Role of Technology: Emerging technologies and ICT are being integrated into teaching to enhance learning experiences.
Need for Scaffolding: Effective instructional strategies, such as scaffolding, are essential for supporting independent online learners.
AI Chatbots as Support Tools: AI chatbots can serve as instructional tools to assist students in online learning environments, improving engagement and retention.
Research Gaps: There is limited research on the use of AI chatbots in Malaysian education, highlighting a need for further investigation.
Learning Framework Development: The study aims to develop a framework for effectively utilizing AI chatbots as scaffolding agents in virtual learning.

Outline: The Shift to Online Learning in Higher Education

Importance of technology and ICT in modern education (Berawi, 2020a; Godin & Terekhova, 2021).

II. Growth of Technology in Education

Increasing use of blended learning tools:
- Kahoots
- Padlet
- Blogs
- Simulations
- Social media
Role of technology in innovating teaching and learning processes.

IV. Challenges of Online Learning Environments

Dependence on Learning Management Systems (LMS) and blended tools.
Lack of adequate student interaction in online settings.
Deficiencies in instructional design leading to ineffective learning experiences (Liguori & Winkler, 2020).

V. Importance of Interaction and Support

Increased need for interaction when learning independently online (Keshavarz, 2020).
Unrealistic expectations for students to self-regulate learning (Doyumgaç et al., 2021).
Call for methodologies to support asynchronous learning.

VI. Designing Effective Learning Activities

Need for active participation in learning activities.
Importance of scaffolding activities to enhance engagement.
Strategies for engaging students before and after online classes (Allo, 2020).

VII. Conclusion

Summary of the necessity for redesigning online learning environments.
Emphasis on the role of technology and instructional design in facilitating effective online education.

Higher-order thinking skills in general have received little attention from the HCI community to date, though some scholars from other research fields have examined the use of technology to foster higher-order thinking skills [61]. That being said, there exists a long history of scholarship on the ways that technology can be harnessed to promote critical thinking, creative thinking, and support educational goals in general. Early research included discussions about the roles of computers in schools [118], and proposals, such as Jonassen’s concept of Mindtools [68].

HCI researchers have long been interested in creativity support tools [48], and have developed numerous methods for evaluating their impacts on creative thinking [113]. Recent research in HCI and related fields has also explored various techniques for promoting critical thinking in a variety of application domains, including web search [146], online collaboration [126], educational exhibitions [81], online learning [63], digital media literacy [108], data sensing [80], engineering research [6], and misinformation mitigation [14, 37]. With the power and flexibility of AI, extraheric AI has the potential to accelerate this research direction and play a substantial role in the development and promotion of higher-order thinking skills.

Interactive Tutoring Systems (ITS) is a domain related to interaction and interface designs for higher-order thinking skill development1 . ITS can foster students’ higher-order thinking skills by providing personalized learning experiences, such as adaptive feedback and problem-solving exercises. ITS can also offer support for thinking activities by incorporating expert thinking models and metacognitive strategies [49]. While ITS is specifically designed to fit into educational contexts, extraheric AI can be integrated into users’ existing non-educational activities. Extraheric AI thus has the potential to enhance users’ higher-order thinking skills in a broader set of application domains. In an example of building abilities to counter mis/dis-information on the Internet, ITS can offer personalized teaching content based on students’ preferences and behavior on online content. Extraheric AI can complement this by encouraging the execution of higher-order thinking skills when users read online content in a practical setting.

Effortful user interfaces are another interface design relevant to extraheric AI. Effortful user interfaces purposefully infuse cognitive load into interfaces in order to encourage users’ learning of computing systems [27]. Effortful user interfaces typically introduce additional burdens during task completion, which serves as a motivator for users to learn. For example, Grossman et al. revealed that disabling the activation of a command in a pull-down menu can lead to accelerated learning of keyboard shortcuts [54]. Similar concepts and merits of introducing purposeful workload to interface designs have been discussed within HCI [115]. These interface designs take an approach to infuse deliberate intrinsic cognitive load to encourage users’ learning and behavior. In a related way, extraheric AI instead aims to increase germane cognitive load to stimulate cognitive activities that can foster users’ higher-order thinking skills, as described in Section 3.

Main Ideas

Higher-Order Thinking Skills: Limited focus in HCI; technology can promote critical and creative thinking.
Interactive Tutoring Systems (ITS): Personalized learning experiences enhance higher-order thinking through adaptive feedback and expert models.
Extraheric AI: Potential to support higher-order thinking across various domains, including misinformation mitigation.
Effortful User Interfaces: Designed to increase cognitive load, motivating users to learn computing systems and enhance cognitive activities.

Outline: Higher-Order Thinking Skills in HCI

Introduction

Definition of higher-order thinking skills
Current lack of attention in HCI community
Reference to scholars from other fields examining technology's role

Historical Context

Long history of scholarship on technology and education
- Early discussions on computers in schools
- Jonassen’s Mindtools concept

Creativity Support Tools in HCI

Interest in creativity support tools
Methods for evaluating impacts on creative thinking

Recent Research Directions

Techniques for promoting critical thinking across various domains:
- Web search
- Online collaboration
- Educational exhibitions
- Online learning
- Digital media literacy
- Data sensing
- Engineering research
- Misinformation mitigation
Role of extraheric AI in enhancing research on higher-order thinking skills

Interactive Tutoring Systems (ITS)

Definition and purpose of ITS
Personalized learning experiences:
- Adaptive feedback
- Problem-solving exercises
Incorporation of expert thinking models and metacognitive strategies
Potential of extraheric AI in non-educational contexts
Example: Countering misinformation through personalized content

Effortful User Interfaces

Definition and purpose of effortful user interfaces
Cognitive load infusion to encourage learning
- Example: Disabling commands to promote keyboard shortcut learning
Discussion of intrinsic cognitive load in HCI
Role of extraheric AI in increasing germane cognitive load
- Stimulating cognitive activities for higher-order thinking skills

Conclusion

Summary of the potential for technology to foster higher-order thinking skills
Importance of integrating extraheric AI and innovative interface designs in HCI research

Summary of Higher-Order Thinking Skills in HCI

Higher-order thinking skills have not been extensively explored within the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) community, although some research from other fields has investigated how technology can enhance these skills. Historically, there has been significant scholarship on leveraging technology to promote critical and creative thinking, with early discussions focusing on the role of computers in education and concepts like Jonassen’s Mindtools.

HCI researchers have shown interest in creativity support tools and have developed methods to evaluate their effectiveness in fostering creative thinking. Recent studies have also examined techniques for enhancing critical thinking across various domains, including web search, online collaboration, and digital media literacy. The advent of extraheric AI presents new opportunities to advance research in this area and support the development of higher-order thinking skills.

Interactive Tutoring Systems (ITS) are designed to enhance higher-order thinking through personalized learning experiences, adaptive feedback, and problem-solving exercises. While ITS are tailored for educational contexts, extraheric AI can be integrated into non-educational activities, broadening its application. For instance, ITS can help users develop skills to counter misinformation online by providing personalized content based on their preferences.

Effortful user interfaces are another relevant design approach that intentionally increases cognitive load to promote learning. These interfaces introduce challenges that motivate users to engage more deeply with computing systems. Research has shown that such designs can accelerate learning, as seen in studies where disabling commands in menus led to quicker mastery of keyboard shortcuts. In contrast, extraheric AI aims to enhance germane cognitive load, stimulating cognitive activities that foster higher-order thinking skills.

This paper presents extraheric AI, a novel human-AI interaction conceptual framework aimed at mitigating the risks of over- reliance on AI, which can lead to human deskilling and reduced cognitive engagement. Unlike traditional AI designs that replace or augment human cognition, extraheric AI fosters higher- order thinking skills by engaging users through questions and alternative perspectives rather than providing direct answers and support to given tasks. This paper illustrates HCI research components of extraheric AI: interaction strategies, evaluation approaches, and design considerations. As discussed above, extraheric AI opens up several research opportunities on which the HCI research community can take a strong initiative. We hope that this work will serve as a catalyst for deeper discourse and further research on human-AI interaction that prioritizes a balanced partnership between humans and interactive intelligent systems.

Main Ideas of the Paper on Extraheric AI

Conceptual Framework: Introduces extraheric AI to enhance human-AI interaction.
Mitigating Risks: Aims to reduce over-reliance on AI, preventing deskilling and cognitive disengagement.
Higher-Order Thinking: Encourages critical thinking by engaging users with questions and alternative perspectives.
HCI Research Components: Discusses interaction strategies, evaluation methods, and design considerations.
Research Opportunities: Promotes further exploration in human-AI interaction for a balanced partnership.

Summary of Higher-Order Thinking Skills in HCI

Higher-order thinking skills have not been extensively explored within the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) community, although other research fields have investigated how technology can enhance these skills. Historically, there has been significant scholarship on leveraging technology to promote critical and creative thinking, with early discussions focusing on the role of computers in education and concepts like Jonassen’s Mindtools.

Interactive Tutoring Systems (ITS) are designed to enhance higher-order thinking by providing personalized learning experiences, adaptive feedback, and problem-solving exercises. While ITS are tailored for educational contexts, extraheric AI can be integrated into non-educational activities, broadening its potential impact. For instance, ITS can help users develop skills to counter misinformation online, while extraheric AI can promote higher-order thinking in practical settings.

Effortful user interfaces are another relevant design approach that intentionally increases cognitive load to facilitate learning. By introducing additional challenges during task completion, these interfaces motivate users to learn more effectively. Research has shown that such designs can accelerate learning, as seen in studies where disabling commands in menus led to quicker mastery of keyboard shortcuts. In contrast, extraheric AI aims to enhance germane cognitive load to stimulate cognitive activities that foster higher-order thinking skills.

Definition of Higher-Order Thinking

Lewis and Smith's Definition
- Cognitive process involving new and stored information
- Interrelates, rearranges, and extends information for a purpose
Broad Applicability
- Tasks include:
  - Deciding what to believe
  - Deciding what to do
  - Creating new ideas or objects
  - Making predictions
  - Solving nonroutine problems

Characteristics of Higher-Order Thinking

Critical Thinking
- Purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed thinking
- Involves problem-solving, inference formulation, and decision-making
- Reflective skepticism in problem areas
Creative Thinking
- Broadly applicable across domains
- Defined by Torrance:
  - Sensing gaps, forming hypotheses, testing, and communicating results
- Importance in problem-solving and artistic creation

Educational Goals and Importance

Development of Critical Thinking
- Key educational goal over the last 50 years
- Essential in the context of advanced AI tools
Development of Creative Thinking
- Increasing interest in education
- Essential for producing meaningful ideas and products

Skills Development

Critical and Creative Thinking Skills
- Developed through reasoning, analysis, planning, and questioning
Attitudes of Thinkers
- Critical thinker attitudes:
  - Willingness to plan, flexibility, persistence, self-correction, mindfulness, consensus-seeking
- Creative thinker attitudes:
  - Belief in one's creativity

Metacognition

Definition
- "Thinking about thinking"
- Awareness and regulation of cognitive processes
Components of Metacognition
- Metacognitive knowledge: awareness of learning processes
- Metacognitive regulation: organizing and monitoring learning activities
Role in Higher-Order Thinking
- Aids in planning, monitoring comprehension, and adjusting strategies
Metacognition and AI
- Tankelevitch et al. on generative AI's metacognitive demands
- Extraheric AI's goal: stimulate cognitive activities for higher-order thinking

Conclusion

Importance of fostering critical and creative thinking skills
Role of metacognition in enhancing higher-order thinking
Potential of AI to support cognitive development rather than offloading tasks