Study Notes: U.S. Foreign Policy and History

Imperialism & Foreign Policy

• Expansion of the United States

  • The U.S. began expanding beyond its borders after completing Manifest Destiny across the continent.
  • In the late 19th century, the United States became more modern in various aspects: political, economic, military, and diplomatic.

• Historian H.W. Brands' Argument

  • Argued that a country develops the foreign policy it can afford.
  • Earlier conflicts such as the American Revolution and War of 1812 were smaller and less global than conflicts occurring later.
  • By the time of the Spanish-American War, the U.S. was capable of engaging in large-scale global conflicts.

• Geographic Isolation and Foreign Policy

  • Geographic isolation had previously reduced the necessity for a strong foreign policy.
  • George Washington warned against foreign entanglements, a stance that began to shift by the late 19th century.

• Economic Expansion and Domestic Issues

  • The U.S. economy rapidly expanded, producing more goods than could be consumed domestically.
  • An economic depression in the 1890s led leaders to link economic growth with social stability, resulting in a drive for overseas markets.

• Influence of Alfred Thayer Mahan

  • Advocated that sea power was key to national greatness; suggested that a strong navy would protect trade routes and expand influence.
  • Leaders, particularly Theodore Roosevelt, supported naval expansion in alignment with Mahan’s views.

• Social Darwinism and Imperialism

  • Social Darwinism encouraged the belief that powerful nations should expand.
  • Many Americans felt it was their duty to spread civilization and modernity, reflecting imperialist motivations driven by economic, military, and cultural factors.

Spanish-American War

• William McKinley's Election

  • Elected in 1896 with strong backing from industrial and business groups.

• Cuban Rebellion

  • A rebellion in Cuba against Spain heightened tensions and American sympathy for the Cubans. Reports of Spanish brutality fueled public sympathy.
  • Political motivations included altruism (helping oppressed Cubans) and self-interest (gaining markets and influence).

• Yellow Journalism

  • Figures like William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer employed yellow journalism to incite support for war.

• Explosion of the USS Maine

  • The explosion served as a catalyst for increased calls for war, leading to the U.S. declaring war on Spain in 1898.

• Outcome of the War

  • The war lasted only a few months and resulted in a swift U.S. victory.
  • The Treaty of Paris resulted in the U.S. acquiring Puerto Rico and Guam.
  • Spain recognized Cuban independence, and the U.S. purchased the Philippines for $20 million, marking the first acquisition of overseas territories by the U.S.

• Annexation of Hawaii

  • The war also led to the annexation of Hawaii.

Theodore Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy

• Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency

  • Became a national hero post-war and was seen as the first modern president.

• Support for Merit-Based Appointments

  • Advocated for government appointments based on merit rather than favoritism.

• Foreign Policy Philosophy

  • Summarized by the phrase: "Speak softly and carry a big stick."

• Panama Canal

  • Supported the construction of the Panama Canal to enhance trade and military mobility.

• Gunboat Diplomacy

  • Employed gunboat diplomacy to exert influence over Latin America.

• Roosevelt Corollary

  • Expanded the Monroe Doctrine to justify U.S. intervention in Latin America.

• Square Deal

  • Focused on consumer protection, corporate regulation, and conservation.
  • Advocated for the protection of natural resources and the expansion of national parks, viewing some trusts as acceptable if they benefited public interest.

World War I (Overview)

• U.S. Entry into the War

  • The U.S. entered World War I in 1917.
  • Key causes: unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Telegram.
  • Economic ties to Britain and France influenced U.S. involvement.

• Woodrow Wilson's Diplomacy

  • Promoted moral diplomacy, emphasizing ethical considerations in foreign relations.

• Military Contribution

  • American forces played a crucial role in turning the tide of the war.

• End of War and Peace Proposals

  • The war concluded with an armistice in 1918.
  • Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points aimed at establishing lasting peace, but European leaders preferred punitive measures against Germany.
  • The League of Nations was proposed but ultimately rejected by the U.S. Senate.

• Impact on Global Politics

  • The collapse of European empires notably reshaped global politics.

World War I Home Front

• Mobilization of the U.S. Economy

  • The government efficiently mobilized the economy for war.
  • The War Industries Board managed production efforts.
  • The Food Administration promoted conservation initiatives.
  • Liberty Bonds were utilized to finance the war effort.

• Civil Liberties

  • The Espionage Act and Sedition Act limited free speech during wartime.
  • The Supreme Court upheld these restrictions under wartime conditions.

• Propaganda and Social Changes

  • Effective propaganda campaigns were launched to promote support for the war.
  • A significant number of women entered the workforce, altering traditional gender roles.
  • The Great Migration saw many African Americans relocating to northern cities, significantly reshaping society.

1920s Economy & Culture

• Economic Growth

  • The 1920s was characterized by rapid economic growth and a rise in consumerism.
  • Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge advocated for pro-business policies.

• Impact of Mass Production

  • Mass production methods made goods cheaper and more accessible to the public.
  • Advertising and the introduction of credit systems increased consumer expenditures.

• Technological Advancements

  • New technologies like radios and household appliances drastically changed daily life.
  • The emergence of movies and radio fostered a shared national culture.
  • Cultural icons like Charlie Chaplin emerged as symbols of the era.

• Shift in Consumer Identity

  • Consumer identity began to be defined by ownership and material possessions.