Semester Exam Review
Vocab: Unit 1
Latitude: Angular distance north or south of the Equator.
Longitude: Angular distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.
Prime Meridian: The 0 longitude line, passing through Greenwich, England.
Equator: The 0 latitude line, dividing Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Tropic of Cancer: Approximately North of the Equator.
Tropic of Capricorn: Approximately South of the Equator.
Globalization: Increasing international interdependence.
Spatial distribution/perspective: Arrangement of phenomena across the Earth's surface.
5 Themes of Geography:
Movement: How people, goods, and ideas travel.
Regions:
formal: Defined by official boundaries or common traits.
vernacular/perceptual: Defined by subjective perceptions.
functional/nodal: Organized around a central node.
Human-Environmental Interaction: How people adapt to and modify the environment, and vice versa.
Environmental determinism: Environment solely determines human culture.
Possibilism: Environment sets limits, but culture is socially determined.
Sequent occupancy: Successive societies leave cultural imprints on a place.
Location: Where something is on Earth.
Relative location: Position in relation to another place.
Absolute location: Precise spot using coordinates.
Place: Unique human and physical characteristics of a location.
Site: Physical character of a place (e.g., landforms, climate).
Situation: Location relative to other places (economic/cultural significance).
Distance decay: Interaction declines as distance increases.
Time-space compression: Reduced time for diffusion due to technology.
Map Types:
Reference: Shows general geographic information.
Political: Shows governmental boundaries and cities.
Physical: Shows natural features.
Thematic: Shows a particular theme or subject.
Dot density: Uses dots to show occurrences.
Isoline: Connects points of equal value.
Choropleth: Uses shades/colors for average values in areas.
Graduated (proportional) symbol: Symbol size indicates amounts.
Map Projections: Represent 3D Earth on a 2D map, always with distortion.
Robinson: Compromise projection, minimizes overall distortion, Round.
Mercator: Cylindrical, accurate direction/shape, distorts area near poles, Grid.
Cholera (Dr. John Snow & disease mapping): Acute infection; Dr. Snow mapped deaths to trace the source.
Large scale maps: Show a small area in great detail.
Small scale maps: Show a large area with less detail.
World Systems Theory: Global economy divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery.
Core countries: Dominant, exploit periphery for labor/materials.
Semi-periphery countries: Industrializing, both exploit and are exploited.
Periphery countries: Dependent on core, provide raw materials/cheap labor.
Vocab: Unit 2
Crude birth rate (CBR): Number of live births per 1,000 people per year.
Crude death rate (CDR): Number of deaths per 1,000 people per year.
Mortality rate: Overall measure of deaths in a population.
Infant mortality rate (IMR): Number of infant deaths (under age 1) per 1,000 live births.
Push factors: Conditions that drive people to leave an area.
Pull factors: Conditions that attract people to a new area.
Migration: Permanent movement to a new location.
Forced migration: Movement caused by threat, conflict, or disaster.
Voluntary migration: Movement by personal choice for better opportunities.
Population pyramid: Graph showing age and sex structure of a population.
Dependency ratio: Ratio of dependents to working-age population.
ODR: Old-age dependency ratio (older dependents to working-age people).
YDR: Youth dependency ratio (young dependents to working-age people).
TDR: Total dependency ratio (all dependents to working-age people).
Urbanization: Growth of cities and increase in urban population.
Life expectancy: Average number of years a person is expected to live.
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: Opportunities, short distances, step migration, rural to urban, traditionally, men travel farther
Total Fertility Rate: Average number of children a woman is expected to have.
Demographic transition model & stages: Model showing how birth and death rates change as a country develops.
Doubling time: Time needed for a population to double in size.
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): Birth rate minus death rate.
Anti-natalist: Policies that discourage births.
Pro-natalist: Policies that encourage births.
Gravity model: Predicts movement based on population size and distance.
Guest workers: Migrants allowed to work temporarily in another country.
Arable land: Land suitable for farming.
Population density: Number of people per unit of land.
Arithmetic density: People per total land area.
Agricultural density: Farmers per unit of arable land.
Physiologic density: People per unit of arable land.
Carrying capacity: Maximum population an environment can support.
Chain migration: Migration due to family or community members already moving.
Asylum: Protection granted to someone fleeing persecution.
Refugee: Person forced to flee their country due to danger.
Internally displaced person (IDP): Person forced to flee home but stays within their country.
Intervening obstacle: Barrier that prevents or slows migration.
Intervening opportunity: Attractive alternative that causes migrants to stop before reaching their original destination.
Neo-Malthusian: Belief that population growth will outpace resources without control measures.
Net migration: Immigration minus emigration.
Population distribution: How people are spread across an area.
Remittance: Money sent home by migrants.
Step migration: Migration in stages toward a final destination.
Cyclic migration: Short, repeated movements (e.g., commuting).
Periodic movement: Longer-term temporary movements (e.g., college, military)..
Vocab: Unit 2
Relocation diffusion: Spread of ideas by people moving to new places.
Expansion diffusion: Spread of ideas without people moving.
Contagious diffusion: Rapid, widespread spread through direct contact.
Hierarchical diffusion: Spread through levels of power or influence.
Stimulus diffusion: Spread of an idea after being changed or adapted.
Residential segregation: Separation of groups into different neighborhoods.
Enclave: A group or area surrounded by a different dominant group.
Exclave: A territory separated from its main state.
Ghetto: Area where a minority group is concentrated, often due to social or economic pressures.
Language families (Indo-European): Largest category of related languages with a common ancient origin.
Language branches: Subdivisions of families showing more recent origin.
Language groups: Even more closely related languages within branches.
Pidgin: Simplified mix of languages used for basic communication.
Creole/creolization: A pidgin that becomes a full, native language.
Lingua franca: A common language used between speakers of different native languages.
Standard language: Officially accepted form of a language.
Official language: Language used by a government for laws and documents.
Monotheism: Belief in one god.
Polytheism: Belief in many gods.
Reincarnation: Belief in rebirth after death.
Traditional architecture: Building styles based on local culture and materials.
Apartheid: System of racial segregation formerly in South Africa.
Hearth: Place where a culture or idea originates.
Monolingual countries: Countries with one dominant language.
Multilingual countries: Countries with multiple major languages.
Universalizing religions: Religions seeking global appeal and converts.
Ethnic religions: Religions tied to a specific group or place.
Toponyms (& types): Place names; types include religious, memorial, natural features, and post-colonial.
Religious (toponym): Named after a religious figure or idea.
Memorial (toponym): Named to honor a person or event.
Natural features (toponym): Named after physical features like rivers or mountains.
Post-colonial (toponym): Renamed after independence to reflect local culture.
Commodification: Turning something cultural into something bought or sold.
Acculturation: Adopting some traits of another culture while keeping your own.
Adherent: A follower of a religion or belief.
Assimilation: Full absorption into another culture, losing original traits.
Cultural appropriation: Taking elements of another culture without understanding or respect.
Cultural convergence: Cultures becoming more similar.
Cultural divergence: Cultures becoming more different over time.
Cultural landscape: Visible imprint of human activity on the land.
Dialect: Regional variation of a language.
Culture: Shared beliefs, behaviors, and traits of a group.
Trait: A single cultural characteristic.
Custom: A repeated practice of a group.
Complex: A Set of related cultural traits.
Cultural relativism: Viewing cultures based on their own values.
Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by your own standards.
Syncretism: Blending of different beliefs or practices.
Identity: How people define themselves.
Gender: Social and cultural roles tied to being male, female, or other identities.
Race: A Socially constructed classification based on physical traits.
Ethnicity: Shared cultural traits, ancestry, or heritage.
Pilgrimage: Religious journey to a sacred place.
Popular culture: Widespread, rapidly changing cultural traits.
Folk culture: Traditional, isolated, slow-changing cultural practices.
World Map Stats
🌍Seven Continents (Highlight Green)
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Australia
Europe
North America
South America
🌊 Four Oceans (Highlight Blue)
Arctic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Pacific Ocean
🌊 Five Longest Rivers in the World (Highlight Blue)
Nile
Amazon
Chang Jiang (Yangtze)
Mississippi
Yenisei
🌊 Five Largest Lakes in the World (Highlight Blue)
Caspian Sea
Lake Superior
Lake Victoria
Lake Huron
Lake Michigan
🏙 Five Largest Cities in the World (UN 2018 – Population)
Tokyo, Japan
Delhi, India
Shanghai, China
São Paulo, Brazil
Mexico City, Mexico
⛰ Tallest Mountain on Each Continent (Highlight Yellow)
Mount Everest – Asia
Mount Aconcagua – South America
Denali – North America
Mount Kilimanjaro – Africa
Mount Elbrus – Europe
Vinson Massif – Antarctica
Mount Kosciuszko – Australia
⛰ Five Longest Mountain Chains (Highlight Yellow)
Andes
Rocky Mountains
Himalayas
Great Dividing Range
Transantarctic Range
🏜 Five Largest Deserts (Highlight Gray)
Antarctic Desert
Sahara Desert
Arabian Desert
Gobi Desert
Kalahari Desert
🌎 Five Largest Countries by Area
Russia
Canada
China
United States
Brazil
👥 Five Most Populous Countries (2024)
China
India
United States
Indonesia
Pakistan
Condensed Topics
I. Geographic Foundations 🗺
Five Themes of Geography (MR. HELP)
Movement: How people, goods, and ideas move.
Region: Areas with shared characteristics (formal, functional, perceptual).
Human–Environment Interaction: How humans adapt to and modify the environment.
Location:
Absolute: Exact coordinates (latitude & longitude).
Relative: Location compared to other places.
Place: Physical and human characteristics that make a location unique.
Map Projections
Mercator: Preserves direction; distorts area near poles.
Robinson: Balances shape and area; good for world maps.
Map Scale
Verbal: “1 inch = 10 miles.”
Fractional/Ratio: 1:100,000
Graphic/Bar scale: |---------|---------|---------|---------|
0 km 50 km 100 km 150 km
Latitude & Longitude: Lines used to determine absolute location.
Latitude: Run east to west and measure north and south
Longitude: Run north to south and measure east and west
Early Human Settlement Patterns
Settled near water, fertile soil, temperate climate, and natural resources.
II. Regions & Spatial Organization 🏘
Types of Regions
Formal: Defined by borders.
Functional/Nodal: Organized around a central point (metro area, airport hub).
Perceptual/Vernacular: Defined by perspective (The South, Rust Belt).
Cultural Patterns: Urban vs Rural
Urban: Dense, heterogeneous, innovation centers.
Rural: Sparse, homogeneous, agricultural-based.
Urbanization Causes
Industrialization, economic opportunities, migration, and infrastructure.
III. Population & Migration 👥
Population Growth Theories
Malthus: Population grows faster than resources → famine & conflict.
Boserup: Population growth drives agricultural innovation.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
Stages 1–5: High birth/death → low birth/death.
Predicts population trends & development.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM) – 5 Stages 📊
Stage 1 – Low Growth / Pre-Industrial
Birth Rate: High
Death Rate: High
Natural Increase / Population Growth: Very slow / stable
Characteristics:
Limited technology and medicine
High infant mortality
Frequent food shortages
Population fluctuates over time
Example Countries: No countries today; historical small tribes
Stage 2 – High Growth / Early Industrial
Birth Rate: High
Death Rate: Rapidly declining
Natural Increase / Population Growth: Very high
Characteristics:
Improvements in medicine, sanitation, and food supply
Longer life expectancy
Population grows rapidly
Example Countries: Afghanistan, some Sub-Saharan African countries
Stage 3 – Moderate Growth / Late Industrial
Birth Rate: Rapidly declining
Death Rate: Low
Natural Increase / Population Growth: Moderate
Characteristics:
Decline in birth rate due to urbanization and family planning
Smaller family sizes
Social and economic changes lead to slower population growth
Example Countries: Mexico, India (recent decades)
Stage 4 – Low Growth / Post-Industrial
Birth Rate: Low
Death Rate: Low
Natural Increase / Population Growth: Stable
Characteristics:
Population stabilizes
Women have fewer children; higher education and workforce participation
Aging population begins to increase
Example Countries: USA, Canada, Japan
Stage 5 – Declining / Negative Growth
Birth Rate: Very low
Death Rate: Low
Natural Increase / Population Growth: Negative or very slow
Characteristics:
Population may start to shrink
Aging population dominates
High dependency ratio
Example Countries: Germany, Japan, Italy
IV. Language & Culture 🗣
Language Development
Spoken and written language allows communication, trade, record-keeping, and governance.
Language Families, Branches, Groups
Families: Large group of related languages (e.g., Indo-European).
Branches: Subdivisions of families.
Groups: Closely related languages within branches.
Pidgin, Creole, Lingua Franca
Pidgin: Simplified mix of languages for communication.
Creole: Pidgin that becomes a native language.
Lingua Franca: Common language used for communication between groups.
Cultural Diffusion
Expansion Diffusion: Contagious, hierarchical, or stimulus diffusion.
Relocation Diffusion: Spread of culture via migration.
Cultural Hearths
Examples: Mesopotamia, Nile Valley, Indus Valley, Huang He, Mesoamerica.
Cultural Patterns & Practices
Assimilation, acculturation, syncretism, ethnocentrism, cultural relativism.
Popular vs. folk culture.
Toponymy (Place Names)
Study of place names; reveals history, culture, and identity.
V. Religion & Belief Systems ✝☪🕉
Major World Religions & Tenets
Christianity: One God, Bible, salvation.
Islam: One God, Quran, Five Pillars.
Hinduism: Multiple gods, karma, reincarnation.
Buddhism: Enlightenment, Four Noble Truths.
Judaism: One God, Torah, covenant.
Sikhism: One God, teachings of Gurus.
Religion Populations & Locations
Christianity: Americas, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa
Islam: Middle East, North Africa, Indonesia, South Asia
Hinduism: India, Nepal
Buddhism: East & Southeast Asia
Judaism: Israel, U.S.
Sikhism: Punjab (India)
Religion in the U.S.
Regional distribution of major religions (Baptists in South, Catholics in NE, etc.)
Global vs Ethnic Faiths
Universalizing: Global, seeks converts (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism).
Ethnic: Limited to one group/area (Hinduism, Judaism).
Politics & Religion
Religion can shape political boundaries and laws; politics can influence religious practice.
VI. Development & Gender Issues 📊
Human Development Index (HDI): Measures life expectancy, education, and income.
Gender Development Index (GDI): Compares development between men and women.
Women & Education: Access to education impacts fertility, economic opportunities, and health.
Women in Developed vs. Developing Countries: Differences in rights, employment, and education.