The World Around 1600
Introduction
trade was increasing internationally—before, there was little contact between the eastern and western countries, and northern and southern hemispheres
now, nations began to establish trading routes and set up commercial enterprises with other countries
European societies were still recovering from political conflicts and social upheaval, but this started to change
the establishment of trade routes ensured that commerce flowed between the east and west, which led to a shift in power from the east to the west
by the 1800s, the power was in Europe, unlike in the 1600s where the power was in China, India, and West Africa
before, trade took place through nomads who travelled between regions, but in the 1600s this began to change
formal trading become the norm, traders would move constantly between places
these traders become incredibly wealthy, as people rushed to buy their new and exotic products
increasing trade also led to developments in music, art, clothing, literature, and exotic foodstuffs
there was little change in poverty levels in the northern hemisphere; the increased mobility of the wealthy and the need for cheap labour led to slavery
most cultures at the time were dominated by men, with women playing little to no role in politics, commerce and religion
prior to the 1600s, there were a number of powerful empires, and many of them fell in shifting power struggles, being replaced by others, and eventually leading to other forms of government
China: Rise of the Ming dynasty
Government and society
China was a world power between the 14th and 17th centuries
Ming dynasty = 1368-1644 (276 years)
characterised by increased trade and huge impact in creative, literary and dramatic arts (invented printing, paper, gunpowder, advanced navigation instruments etc.)
founded by Emperor Taizu (Zhu Yuanzhang)
Emperor Taizu led his forces (peasants) against the Mongols (in control of China at the time), and overthrew Beijing in 1368 which was the start of the Ming dynasty
Ming emperors were absolute rulers who ruled through decrees which were carried out by officials
officials (called manderins) were chosen competitively, formed an efficient civil service
the Mongols were a constant threat to the Chinese which made the Great Wall all the more important
the wall has fallen so during the Ming dynasty, extensive renovations took place to strengthen the defense
capital of Ming empire = Beijing—3 cities built in a series of rings
Forbidden city: where the emperor and his family lived in luxury, contained a hub with offices for government officials
Imperial city: where officials and guards lived
Commercial city: where merchants, craftsmen and ordinary people lived
one of greatest achievements = oceanic exploration and trade
emperors sent out ships to explore different countries to create more trading opportunities
also a display of power and wealth to the rest of the world
Women in Ming China
some were wealthy property owners and influential
most were kept at home and only valued because they could have children
most people wanted boys and sometimes girls would be killed at birth → practice was officially discouraged
rural peasant women worked in the fields beside men
urban women employed as silk weavers and embroiderers
many upper class women were well educated, but also crippled by foot-binding practice from a young age
purpose was to keep feet very small, symbol of feminine beauty and high standing in society
feet were bound so tightly that bones would break, and foot would be permanently bent beneath itself
resulted in women taking tiny painful steps
Travel and Trade
Chinese sent silks, porcelain, and tea to western Asia and Europe via Silk Road
Silk Road: 6400 km overland journey to the Mediterranean Sea
China also traded by sea to the Japanese and countries around the Indian Ocean
In 1453: Ottoman Empire closed route to Chinese traders, Chinese looked for alternative routes
Ming Emperor sent fleets of ships to trade and explore the Indian Ocean
Led by Admiral Zheng He who was a eunuch in the Chinese court (had considerable power as a guard and servant)
Zheng He made 7 voyages between 1405 and 1433 in large treasure ships (power display) to Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Saudi Arabia, and east coast of Africa
During their first expedition they carried silk, porcelain, tea, gold and silver ornaments, and textiles in a total of 317 ships with 20-32k crew members
They returned with spices, precious gems, ivory, exotic animals (lions, camels, ostriches, zebras, giraffe), and prisoners of war
Zheng He died during the seventh expedition and that marked the end of the discovery and trade era for the Chinese → they started to look inwards
Writer Gavin Menzies suggests the Zheng discovered America and mapped large parts of the globe; theory dismissed by lack of evidence
Scientific and Cultural Achievements
Chinese developments:
-Papermaking & Printing -porcelain -gunpowder -maps
→ books and encyclopaedia -silk -compasses
Society was sophisticated; medicine, mathematics, and sciences were advanced
education was widespread for both men and women among the elites
renewed interest in reviving traditional Chinese art
porcelain, landscape paintings, carved jade ornaments
Decline of the Ming dynasty
the wealth and power of the Ming dynasty led to the threat of invasion
the Dutch attempted to attack China twice, as well as the Mongols and the Manchu
furthermore, change of emperor led to a shift in power dynamics
instead of looking outward (expeditions, trading etc.), China started looking inward (protecting borders and finances, independence)
Great Wall was continually strengthened due to external threats; China lost a lot of its influence due to fear of external influence and an isolationist policy
→ isolationist policy: national strategy of avoiding all involvement in foreign affairs to prioritise domestic interests.
Reasons for the decline:
Change in power
Emperor Yongle favoured the eunuchs, which gave them power, hence the support of expansion and travel policies
when he died, the Hongxi emperor took over, who was more conservative and therefore supported the Confucian officials who opposed naval expansion and trade
Regulations were reviewed, and all non-two mast ships had to be destroyed, making the world’s largest navy vanish
Natural disasters and epidemics
famine, epidemics, a lightning strike that destroyed a part of the Forbidden City, flood of the Yellow River
all of these events contributed to end of the Ming dynasty
Violence outbreaks
The Ming Dynasty faced multiple battles on several fronts, draining resources and weakening their forces
In 1644, rebel leader Li Zicheng led a peasant uprising, capturing Xi’an and later Beijing, declaring himself emperor of the Shun Dynasty
Another rebel, Zhang Xianzhong, declared himself emperor of the Xi Dynasty in Sichuan Province
The last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, committed suicide after Li’s forces took Beijing
The Ming turned to their former enemies, the Manchu, for help against Li Zicheng’s forces
The Manchu defeated Li Zicheng but then took control of China, establishing the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)
The Qing kept the civil service exam system but imposed Manchu customs, like the queue hairstyle, on the Han Chinese
Africa: The Songhai Empire
around year 700 AD, a series of great kingdoms developed in West Africa
power was due to salt and gold trade across Sahara Desert
salt preserves meat → highly valued in hot African climate
gold mined in West Africa → prized in Arab world & Europe
Arab traders were a link between Africa and rest of world
Trade routes across desert to Mediterranean exported salt in and imported gold out (of West Africa)
Kingdoms that controlled these routes were rich and powerful; Ghana, Mali, then Songhai
Government and society
At its height in the mid-14th century, Mali was a federation of kingdoms conquered by the Mansa (king).
Most famous king → Mansa Musa (ruled for 25 years)
Mali’s wealth became known across Arab and European worlds
After Mansa Musa’s death, central control declined and kingdoms broke apart
One of these kingdoms was Songhai, which had grown wealthy through trade by the mid-13th century.
1275 – Songhai attempted to rebel against Mali but failed.
Early 15th century – Songhai finally broke away and became independent
1464 – Sonni Ali became king, expanding Songhai into an empire using war canoes and cavalry
→ capital: Gao – a wealthy trade centre along with Timbuktu & Djenné
Timbuktu scholars called Sonni Ali cruel and tyrannical.
Sonni dynasty ruled until late 15th century, then overthrown by the Muslim Askia dynasty.
Askia Muhammed I led military campaigns to expand the empire
Created an efficient administration system
ministers controlled different government sectors
Local chiefs had authority over their areas but had to pay taxes, tributes, and provide military aid to the king
Askia Muhammed’s control strategy:
Divided the empire into four, placing a viceroy over each part
Nepotism – married daughters & nieces into powerful families to unify the empire
All major families were connected to him through marriage
Songhai had the largest military force in Western Sudan – 30,000 infantry, 10,000 horsemen
Army had elite cavalry and a fleet on the Niger River (led by the ‘Master of the Water’)
Soldiers captured the strongest men from defeated armies
Military force was both a political tool and an economic weapon – conquests brought in wealth
Royal court in Gao had absolute power
People paid taxes in exchange for internal and external security
Nobles owned large estates worked by servile laborers who handled fishing, farming, and livestock
1. Arab travellers and historians
| SOURCES 2. West African Story-telling tradition
(opinion of Sonni varies between these sources) | 3. Timbuktu Chronicles (scribes)
|
Sonni Ali became king in 1464, by 1468 he’d defeated enemy north and south of region
1469- asked by Muslim leaders of Timbuktu to defeat the Tuareg (nomads), he defeated them and took Timbuktu as part of Songhai empire
His army consisted of well-armoured soldier, cavalry, and a fleet of war canoes
this enabled him to take over 3 major cities along the Niger river
→ Djenné, Timbuktu, and Gao
Different opinions of Sonni:
Extract A: (positive) magician of great power; man of the people; great military commander
Extract B: (negative) capricious and cruel leader; impious and unscrupulous tyrant; massacred; plundering; killing; driving out; temper tantrums
Extract C: (positive) able to build; thrive; expanded; history will never forget; proudly stand on your shoulders
Travel and trade
Songhai, Ghana, and Mali’s wealth came from ideal location on edge of Sahara → also situated on fertile banks of Niger River
Askia Muhammed I, and kings after him, built a large orderly army
this enabled trade to be carried on peacefully in the empire
West Africa to Europe: gold, salt, ivory, spices, kola nuts, slaves, leather goods, ivory
Europe to West Africa: cloth, weapons. horses
Huge caravans with goods crossed the Sahara in both directions → Timbuktu became commercial centres where North African, Mediterranean and European merchants traded
Jewish trading networks from Spain spread to North Africa and traded along Niger River and lived in Timbuktu
Arab scholars and traders lived in Timbuktu and Djenné
All linked Songhai empire to widespread Muslim trading networks of Africa, the Mediterranean, and Asia
Internal trade grew due to need for accommodation, food etc.
economy and agriculture flourished due to providing for both locals and travellers
slavery also grew; property owners needed labour to work farms and serve as soldiers during rule of Askia Mohammed
many of these slaves rose to high positions due to loyalty to masters