Human Geography Vocabulary

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Unit Overview

  • Geography distinguishes itself through its spatial perspective and concern for human-environment interactions.
  • Geographers focus on the "why of where" - the spatial arrangement of phenomena across Earth's surface.
  • Reliable frameworks for geographic understanding include Big Ideas, Four-Level Analysis, and five skill categories.

Branches of Geography

  • Geography bridges physical and social sciences.
    • Physical Geography: Study of spatial characteristics of the physical environment (landforms, water bodies, climate, ecosystems, erosion).
    • Human Geography: Study of spatial characteristics of humans and human activities (population, culture, politics, urban areas, economics).

Four-Level Analysis Spatial Framework

  • Location is central to geographic understanding.
  • Geographers use thinking skills to understand why things and people are located where they are.
  • The Four-Level Analysis spatial framework guides spatial thinking.
Levels:
  1. Comprehension (L1):
    • Key Questions: What? Where? When? Scale? Source?
    • Example for Earth at Night: Earth at night, Earth, 2016, Global scale, nasa.gov
  2. Identification (L2):
    • Key Question: Are there patterns in the source?
    • Example for Earth at Night: Coasts are brighter than the interior, Northern Hemisphere is brighter than the Southern Hemisphere, Eastern China is brighter than Western China.
  3. Explanation (L3):
    • Key Question: Pick a pattern from the source and explain why it occurred there, or how it occurred.
    • Example for Earth at Night: People live near coasts for access to global trade networks or natural resources (fish). Interior often has harsher climates and less access to natural resources.
  4. Prediction (L4):
    • Key Questions: What will be the impact on the economy, society, politics, or the environment? What if the pattern continues into the future?
    • Example for Earth at Night:
      • Economic - Cost of living (rent) is higher on the coasts because of the high demand for housing.
      • Environmental - Human and factory waste can pollute the ocean, killing fish and wildlife.
  • Deeper understanding of human geography improves the depth and quality of responses.

Essential Geography Skill Categories 1-5

The AP Human Geography exam emphasizes content, discipline-specific language, and the application of essential skills.

Skill Category 1: Concepts and Processes
  • Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, or models in theoretical and applied contexts.
  • Analyze: Break down into parts and study each part carefully.
  • Theory: A system of ideas and concepts that attempt to explain and prove why or how interactions have occurred in the past or will occur in the future.
  • Concepts: Key vocabulary, ideas, and building blocks that geographers use to describe our world.
  • Processes: Series of steps or actions that explain why or how geographic patterns occur.
  • Models in Geography: Representations of reality or theories about reality
    • Help geographers see general spatial patterns, focus on the influence of specific factors, and understand variations from place to place.
    • Help explain, describe, and sometimes even predict spatial activity and phenomena.
    • Two Basic Types:
      • Spatial Models: Look like stylized maps and illustrate theories about spatial distributions. Developed for agricultural and urban land use, distributions of cities, and store or factory location.
      • Nonspatial Models: Illustrate theories and concepts using words, graphs, or tables. Depict changes over time rather than across space with more accuracy than spatial models.
Data Driven Models
  • Geographers use mathematical formulas to help them understand how the world works.
  • Examples: Crude birth and death rates, doubling times for populations, and population densities.
  • Time-Distance Decay: Things near each other are more closely connected than things far apart.
  • Example: The bright lights on the border between the United States and Mexico are partly explained because the lights show cities on both sides of the border. This illustrates the countries have lots of connections economically and culturally because they are close to each other.
  • Time-Distance Decay Model: Illustrates decreasing interactions and connections as distance increases.
    • Describing, explaining, and comparing concepts, processes, models, and theories are essential.
    • Applying the models in various contexts across the world.
    • Explaining the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of models is key.
Skill Category 2: Spatial Relationships
  • Analyze geographic patterns, relationships, and outcomes in applied contexts.
  • Maps are the signature element of geography.
  • Geographers examine maps to look for clues and patterns in the location and distribution of phenomena.
  • Spatial patterns refer to the general arrangement of things being studied; describing these with precise language is critical.
  • Geographers use specific terms to communicate about locations and distributions (density, dispersion, clustered, scattered, linked).
  • Use concepts, models, and theories to explain why and how patterns occur and some likely outcomes.
  • Networks are sets of interconnected entities (nodes).
  • Explaining the degree to which a geographic concept or model effectively describes or explains expected outcomes.
Skill Category 3: Data Analysis
  • Analyze and interpret quantitative geographic data represented in maps, tables, charts, graphs, satellite images, and infographics.
  • Quantitative data: Information that can be measured and recorded using numbers (e.g., immigrants to a city).
  • Geospatial data: Quantitative and spatial data with a geographic location component used with GIS.
  • Describe spatial pattern accurately- if data is in a graph or chart, describe variables and trends.
  • Use concepts, models, and theories to explain patterns and likely outcomes or impacts.
  • Recognize the limitations of data, including trustworthiness of sources and potential mistakes in data gathering.
Skill Category 4: Source Analysis
  • Analyze and interpret qualitative geographic information represented in maps, images, and landscapes.
  • Qualitative sources: Data collected as interviews, photographs, remote satellite images, descriptions, or cartoons.
  • Use Four-Level Analysis to guide approach.
  • Look for types of information, patterns, and similarities/differences between sources.
  • Explain reasons and impacts of patterns.
  • Recognize limitations such as partial landscapes, time of day, opinions not based on accurate information, or author's lack of understanding of cultural beliefs or values.
Skill Category 5: Scale Analysis
  • Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, and models across geographic scales to explain spatial relationships.
  • Change scales of analysis: Look at topics at the local, regional, country, or global scale.
  • Zooming in and out to develop a more complete understanding
  • Observe different patterns and reasons at each scale of analysis.

Enduring Understandings

  • IMP-1: Geographers use maps and data to depict relationships of time, space, and scale.
  • PSO-1: Geographers analyze relationships among and between places to reveal spatial patterns.
  • SPS-1: Geographers analyze complex issues and relationships with a spatial perspective.

Chapter 1: Maps and Geographic Data

Topics 1.1-1.3

Topic 1.1 Introduction to Maps
  • Learning Objective: Identify types of maps, the types of information presented in maps, and different kinds of spatial patterns and relationships portrayed in maps. (IMP-1.A).
Topic 1.2 Geographic Data
  • Learning Objective: Identify different methods of geographic data collection. (IMP-1.B).
Topic 1.3 The Power of Geographic Data
  • Learning Objective: Explain the geographical effects of decisions made using geographical information. (IMP-1.C).

1.1 Introduction to Maps

  • Essential Question: What information is presented in different types of maps, and how do those maps show spatial patterns, the power of geographic data, and relationships among places?
  • Geographers emphasize spatial patterns: general arrangements of things being studied and repeated sequences of events or processes that create them.
  • Recognizing and using geographical patterns is a fundamental skill.
  • Maps are important tools and help organize complex information.
  • Improvements in geospatial and computer technologies have increased the quality of maps and data accuracy.
  • Maps and geospatial data now influence everyday life.
  • Maps are essential in highlighting and analyzing patterns
    • Reference Maps
    • Thematic Maps
Reference Maps
  • Designed for general information about places.
    • Political Maps: Show and label human-created boundaries and designations (countries, states, cities, capitals).
    • Physical Maps: Show and label natural features (mountains, rivers, deserts).
    • Road Maps: Show and label highways, streets, and alleys.
    • Plat Maps: Show and label property lines and land ownership details.
Thematic Maps
  • Show spatial aspects of information or phenomena.
    • Choropleth Maps: Use colors, shades, or patterns to show the location and distribution of spatial data. Often show rates or quantitative data in defined areas.
    • Dot Distribution Maps: Show the specific location and distribution of something across a map. Each dot represents a specified quantity.
    • Graduated Symbol Maps: Use different sized symbols to indicate different amounts of something; also called proportional symbol maps.
    • Isoline Maps: Also called isometric maps; use lines that connect points of equal value to depict variations in data across space (e.g. topographic maps).
    • Cartogram: The sizes of countries (or states, counties, or other areal units) are shown according to some specific statistic
      • Useful because they allow for data to be compared, much like a graph, and distance and distribution are also visible, like on a traditional map.
Scale
  • A map is a smaller version of a portion of the Earth's surface.
  • Scale is the ratio between the size of things in the real world and the size of those same things on the map
    • Cartographic Scale: Refers to the way the map communicates the ratio of its size to the size of what it represents:
      • Words (e.g., "1 inch equals 10 miles")
      • Ratio (e.g., 1/200,000 or 1:200,000)
      • Line: A linear or graphic scale.
    • Small-Scale Maps: Show a larger amount of area with less detail (e.g., global scale Earth at night).
    • Large-Scale Maps: Show a smaller amount of area with a greater amount of detail (e.g., North America at night).
Types of Spatial Patterns Represented on a Map
  • Spatial patterns: General arrangement of phenomena on a map.
  • Described using location, direction, distance, elevation, or distribution pattern.
Location
  • Absolute or relative.
  • Absolute Location: Precise spot using a system (latitude and longitude).
    • Latitude: Distance north or south of the equator.
    • Longitude: Distance east or west of the prime meridian.
  • Relative Location: Description of where something is in relation to other things.
    • Connectivity: How well two locations are tied together by roads or other links.
    • Accessibility: How quickly and easily people can interact between locations.
Direction
  • Describe where things are in relation to each other.
  • Cardinal directions (north, east, south, west) or intermediate directions(southeast, southwest).
Distance
  • Measurement of how far or near things are to one another.
  • Absolute distance: Measured in feet, miles, meters, kilometers.
  • Relative distance: Nearness based on time or money and is often dependent on the mode of travel.
Elevation
  • The distance of features above sea level, usually measured in feet or meters.
  • Usually shown on maps with contours (isolines).
Pattern Distribution
  • The way a phenomenon is spread out over an area.
  • Description of the pattern of where specific phenomena are located.
  • Looking for patterns, or the general arrangement of things, in the distribution of phenomena across space that give clues about causes or effects of the distribution
    • Clustered or Agglomerated: Arranged in a group or concentrated area.
    • Linear: Arranged in a straight line.
    • Dispersed: Spread out over a large area.
    • Circular: Equally spaced from a central point.
    • Geometric: In a regular arrangement.
    • Random: Appear to have no order.
Projections
  • All maps distort reality due to showing a curved surface on a flat surface.
  • Cartographers decide whether to preserve area, shape, distance, or direction accurately.
  • All maps have strengths and weaknesses; use appropriate maps for different purposes.
  • The Mercator projection was designed for navigation with straight lines of direction, but makes land masses appear larger than reality as you move north or south from the equator.
  • Geographers are concerned with the political and economic bias created by inaccurate projections.
  • All projections and maps have strengths and weaknesses; understand this and select the best projection for the map.
  • Different Map Projections Comparison:
    • Mercator Projection: For Navigation.
    • Peters Projection: For Spatial distributions related to area.
    • Conic Projection: For General use in midlatitude countries.
    • Robinson Projection: For General use.

1.2 Geographic Data

  • Essential Question: What are different methods of geographical data collection?
  • Gather data through technical mapping or via satellites/aerial photos.
  • Gather data by visiting places, interviewing people, or observing events in the field.
  • The quality of data gathered is important because patterns within the data will influence real-life choices and policy decisions.
Landscape Analysis
  • Defining and describing landscapes.
Observation and Interpretation
  • Careful observation. Geographers collect data about what they see.
  • Field Observation: Physically visiting a location, place, or region and recording, firsthand, information.
  • Spatial Data: All of the information that can be tied to specific locations.
  • Modern technology has increased the ways in which geographers can obtain spatial data, including remote sensing and aerial sources.
  • Remote Sensing: Gathering information from satellites or other craft above the atmosphere.
  • Aerial Photography: Professional images captured from planes within the atmosphere.
  • Once data has been gathered, it must be interpreted.
  • Geographers depend on their skills of synthesizing and integrating to better understand an area.
Geospatial Data
  • Quantitative or qualitative and may be gathered by organizations or individuals.
  • All information that can be tied to a specific place also includes human activities and traits.
Obtaining Geospatial Data
  • Collecting geospatial data by doing fieldwork, or observing and recording information on location, or in the field.
  • Important sources include census data, interviews, land surveys, photographs, and sketches.
  • Technology facilitates the collection, storage, analysis, and display of geospatial data.
  • Additional sources include government policy documents, news media, photos, and smartphone apps.
  • Local geographers can gather information for projects or field studies.

1.3 The Power of Geographic Data

  • Essential Question: What are the effects of decisions made using geographical information?
  • Geographic data is powerful and can have positive benefits when used properly and ethically.
  • Understanding limitations and monitoring improper uses are essential.
Using Geographic Data to Solve Problems
  • Technological sources of geospatial data are used in everyday life.
  • Large quantities of information can now be rapidly gathered and stored, allowing for amazing 2D/3D interactive maps (geovisualizations).
  • Helps with real-world problems. For example, accurately tracking and mapping the COVID-19 pandemic saved lives in hot spots.
  • All data has limitations, and geographers must be careful to accurately gather and interpret the data; maps are only as valuable as the data used to create the map.
  • Data sets may exclude segments of the population.
  • Constant concern of simple errors by incorrectly typing information into a computer.
  • These limitations may not make the data completely useless, but they can create gaps and inaccuracies in the data and cause people using the map to draw inaccurate conclusions.
Geospatial Technologies
  • Global Positioning System (GPS): Receivers on Earth's surface use satellites to determine and record exact locations.
  • Remote Sensing: Cameras or sensors on aircraft/satellites collect digital images/video of Earth's surface.
  • Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Computer systems store, analyze, and display information from multiple digital maps/geospatial data sets.
  • Smartphone Applications: Location-aware apps gather, store, and use locational data.
Solutions in Action
  • Geographers can use geospatial data tools to identify water shortages, potential famine, or rising conflicts.
  • Case study of the Nuba Mountains in Sudan, researchers used maps and remote sensing technologies such as satellite and aerial images, researchers observed possible humanitarian concerns.
  • Researchers decided to visit the community in person to assess the situation on the ground using landscape analysis techniques to develop a community-based solution.
  • Community-based solutions increase the likelihood of success because they create buy-in from local residents and are more likely to be culturally accepted.
London Subway Map
  • One of the most useful maps in history is also one of the most inaccurate.
  • Demonstrates the value of the concept of relative location.
  • A simpler map would be more useful. Passengers did not need to know every twist and turn in the routes, so he created a map with straight lines.
  • Passengers were also not particularly concerned with distances, so he adjusted the space between stops on the map.
  • Passengers knew where to get on, where to get off, and at which stops they could transfer from one line to another.
Grouping Data
  • How people group information can emphasize certain patterns in the data and can influence how readers interpret it.