U5 revolutions 1750-1900

5.1

enlightenment (1750–1900 context: ideological foundation for revolutions)

  • intellectual movement applying rationalism and empiricism to human society and the natural world

  • grew out of the scientific revolution (16th–17th century), which used reason + experimentation to challenge religious explanations

core ideas

  • rationalism: reason is the best source of knowledge, not emotion or authority

  • empiricism: knowledge comes from sensory experience and scientific experimentation

  • shift in thinking: from religious authority to human reason and observation

religion during enlightenment

  • questioned role of religion in public life

  • challenged revealed religion (truth from scripture cannot be questioned)

  • deism: god created universe then does not intervene (clockmaker idea)

  • atheism: rejection of belief in god

political ideas

  • individualism: individuals are the basic unit of society, not groups

  • natural rights: humans are born with rights (life, liberty, property per john locke) that governments cannot take away

  • social contract: government exists to protect rights; if it fails, people can overthrow it

effects of enlightenment

  • revolutions influenced: american, french, haitian, latin american revolutions

  • rise of nationalism: shared identity based on language, religion, customs, often tied to territory

  • expansion of suffrage: gradual expansion of voting rights (initially limited to white men, later expanded further over time)

  • abolition of slavery: influenced britain (abolished 1807), also pushed by slave revolts like the jamaica revolt (1831)

  • end of serfdom in some places: declined due to economic change + peasant revolts during industrialization

  • women’s rights movements: seneca falls convention (1848), declaration of the rights of woman by olympe de gouges criticizing exclusion from equality and rights

5.2

nationalism

  • shared identity (language, culture, ethnicity) → desire for self-rule

  • states promoted nationalism through schools, military, and language laws

  • sometimes backfired (poland, ukraine, finland resisted russification)

discontent with rule

  • monarchies and empires overtaxed and exploited populations

  • widespread resistance, especially in declining ottoman and safavid contexts

new political ideas (enlightenment)

  • popular sovereignty: power comes from the people

  • liberalism: rights, representative government, property, freedom

american revolution (1776–1783) (against britain)
causes

  • british taxes after 7 years war

  • colonial resentment of lack of representation

  • enlightenment ideas (natural rights, social contract)
    result

  • independence from britain

  • united states formed in 1783

  • model for later revolutions

french revolution (1789–1799) (internal)
causes

  • financial crisis and war debt

  • inequality under absolutist rule (louis xvi)

  • enlightenment ideas + american revolution influence
    result

  • monarchy overthrown → republic

  • declaration of rights of man and citizen

  • spread of revolutionary ideas in europe

haitian revolution (1791–1804) (against france)
causes

  • slavery and plantation system in saint-domingue

  • inspiration from french revolutionary ideals
    result

  • successful slave revolt led by touissant l’ouverture

  • first black republic

  • second independent country in the americas

latin american revolutions (1808–1820s) (spain and portugal)
causes

  • creole resentment toward peninsulares in colonial hierarchy

  • enlightenment ideas and nationalism

  • napoleonic invasion of spain weakened control
    leaders

  • simón bolívar and others
    result

  • independence across spanish and portuguese colonies

  • formation of new republics, many unstable

other nationalist movements

philippines (propaganda movement)

  • educated filipino elites exposed to enlightenment ideas in europe

  • spread reform ideas (not initially independence)

  • spanish suppression led to revolution

italy and germany unification

  • nationalism unified fragmented states

  • achieved through war and diplomacy

  • italy and germany unified

5.3

why the industrial revolution began in britain

the industrial revolution started in britain around 1750 because of several key advantages:

  • proximity to waterways: rivers and canals made transport of goods fast and efficient

  • coal and iron deposits: provided energy and raw materials for machines, factories, railroads

  • access to global empire resources: britain’s empire supplied raw materials like cotton and timber

  • agricultural revolution: improved farming methods like crop rotation and seed drill increased food production

  • colombian exchange crops: potatoes improved diets, increased population, and boosted labor supply

  • population growth and urbanization: fewer farm workers were needed, so people moved to cities for factory jobs

  • private property laws: encouraged investment and entrepreneurship by protecting business owners

  • capital accumulation: wealth from trade (including atlantic slave trade) funded industrial growth

factory system

  • factories centralized production using machines instead of individual artisans

  • early factories used water power and machines like the water frame and spinning jenny

  • production became faster and more efficient than hand production

  • labor shifted from skilled craft workers to unskilled workers doing repetitive tasks

  • workers became interchangeable and production became highly specialized

5.4

spread of the industrial revolution (definition)

the industrial revolution spread when countries outside britain began adopting machines, factories, and steam-powered production. this created a global divide between industrialized and non-industrialized regions.

steam engine and spread of industrialization

  • steam engine converted coal (fossil fuel) into mechanical energy

  • unlike water-powered factories, steam power allowed factories to be built anywhere

  • steam power also improved transportation through steamships and railroads

  • result: faster production + faster global trade + deeper global economic connections

why industrialization spread unevenly

countries industrialized at different speeds depending on whether they had:

  • coal and iron resources

  • access to waterways or trade routes

  • supportive governments and investment conditions

  • resistance from traditional elites (like nobility blocking change)

result: the world divided into industrialized vs non-industrialized regions

  • industrialized: britain, france, united states (and later others)

  • non-industrialized: parts of asia, africa, and middle east lost global economic influence

case studies of industrialization

france

  • industrialization started after 1815 (post-napoleon)

  • slower than britain due to limited coal and iron

  • napoleon helped indirectly by building canals (like quénet canal)

  • government built railroads and supported textile industry growth

  • result: slower industrialization = less social disruption than britain

united states

  • rapid industrialization after civil war

  • advantages: large land, natural resources, growing population, immigration

  • strong internal market for goods

  • result: high productivity and higher worker living standards than europe

russia

  • state-driven industrialization under the tsar

  • built railroads (especially trans-siberian railroad)

  • increased trade and internal connectivity

  • harsh working conditions led to unrest and revolts

  • result: industrialization lagged behind western europe and created instability

japan

  • adopted industrialization during the meiji restoration

  • responded to western pressure and unequal treaties

  • rapidly borrowed western technology and education systems

  • result: became major industrial power in asia very quickly

5.5

fuels and engines (industrial revolution phases)

the industrial revolution happened in two stages:

first industrial revolution (1750–1830)

  • mainly in great britain

  • main fuel: coal (burns hotter than wood)

  • main engine: steam engine (improved by james watt)

  • steam engine used coal to boil water → create steam → power machines

  • factories no longer needed rivers → could be built anywhere

  • steam engines also powered locomotives (railroads) and steamships

  • result: faster production and global trade expansion

  • major infrastructure: coaling stations and suez canal (1869) shortened europe–asia travel

second industrial revolution (mid 1800s–early 1900s)

  • spread to europe, united states, russia, japan

  • main fuel: oil (refined into gasoline)

  • main engine: internal combustion engine (smaller, more efficient than steam)

  • enabled automobiles and modern transportation

key technologies of the second industrial revolution

steel production

  • replaced iron as main industrial material

  • bessemer process made steel stronger, cheaper, and more efficient

  • used for railroads, bridges, ships

chemical engineering

  • synthetic dyes replaced natural dyes (cheaper textile production)

  • vulcanization made rubber stronger and more durable

  • rubber used for factory belts and later automobile tires

electricity

  • powered by inventions like thomas edison’s light bulb

  • lit factories, homes, and cities

  • enabled electric streetcars and subways for urban transport

  • telegraph (samuel morse) allowed long-distance communication using morse code

  • transatlantic telegraph cable connected europe and north america

effects of industrial technology

development of interior regions

  • railroads and transcontinental lines expanded inland settlement (us, russia)

  • telegraph enabled instant long-distance communication

  • improved coordination of production and markets

increase in trade and migration

  • global trade increased dramatically (about 10x between 1850–1913)

  • more economic interconnection worldwide

  • mass migration:

    • rural → urban migration within europe for factory jobs

    • large emigration from europe to americas, australia, south africa due to famine and instability

5.6

state sponsored industrialization
context

  • industrialization shifted global power toward industrial states like britain and the united states

  • some non industrial states responded with state led industrialization to avoid domination

egypt
cause

  • decline of the ottoman empire and pressure to compete with european industrial powers

actions

  • muhammad ali built textile and weapons factories

  • forced cotton production for export

  • raised tariffs to protect local industry

result

  • britain intervened to protect trade routes

  • egypt forced to remove tariffs

  • british goods flooded the market

  • local industry was weakened and industrialization stalled

japan
cause

  • fear of western domination after china was weakened by unequal treaties

  • arrival of commodore perry forced japan to open trade

actions

  • meiji restoration in 1868 ended shogunate rule

  • state led modernization using western technology and systems

  • built railroads, factories, banking system, and modern military

result

  • rapid industrialization succeeded

  • japan became a major industrial power in asia

  • able to compete with western nations

5.7

decline of mercantilism

  • mercantilism = state controlled economy tied to imperialism

  • slowly replaced by free market capitalism during industrialization

rise of free market capitalism

  • influenced by adam smith, wealth of nations

  • argued against government control of economy

  • laissez faire = minimal government interference

  • “invisible hand” = supply and demand regulate economy

  • goal = wealth and efficiency through competition

  • becomes widely adopted after 1815 as trade expands

criticism of capitalism

  • jeremy bentham: government should fix social problems caused by industry

  • friedrich list: free trade benefits britain more than others

  • supported tariffs and protectionism (zollverein in german states)

transnational corporations

  • companies operating in multiple countries

  • hong kong and shanghai banking corporation

    • financed british trade and imperial expansion in asia

  • unilever

    • produced consumer goods like soap

    • used colonial raw materials from africa and asia

finance and banking changes

  • rise of stock markets (ex: new york stock exchange)

  • investors buy shares to fund companies

  • limited liability corporations

    • investors only lose what they invest

    • encourages investment and risk taking

effects of industrial capitalism

  • overall wealth increases in industrialized countries

  • rise of middle class

  • more access to cheap mass produced goods

  • improved agriculture → more food + higher life expectancy

5.8

political and social reform

  • industrial work conditions were long, repetitive, and low paid

  • working class begins demanding reforms

political reform

  • expansion of suffrage in western countries

  • rise of mass political parties representing workers

  • conservatives and liberals begin adding social reforms to attract voters

social reform

  • workers form mutual aid societies

  • provided insurance, sickness support, and social activities

  • helped reduce harsh effects of industrial life

educational reform

  • compulsory education laws (roughly 1870–1914 in europe)

  • children aged ~6–12 required to attend school

  • prepared workers for more technical industrial jobs

urban reform

  • rapid city growth caused overcrowding and poor sanitation

  • workers lived in tenements

  • waste disposal problems and disease spread

  • governments begin building sewers and sanitation systems

labor unions

  • organizations of workers formed to protect rights

  • illegal in some early cases, then legalized over time

  • demanded higher wages, shorter hours, safer conditions

  • grew large (millions of members in britain, germany, us)

  • sometimes formed political parties (ex: german social democratic party)

marxism and socialism

  • karl marx and friedrich engels criticized capitalism

  • idea: society split into bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers)

  • capitalism creates class conflict and inequality

  • predicted revolution of workers

  • communist manifesto (1848) introduced scientific socialism

  • goal = classless society after revolution

state responses to industrial pressure

china

  • opium wars with britain after trade imbalance

  • china defeated due to industrial weakness

  • unequal treaties forced open trade ports

  • self strengthening movement attempted limited modernization

  • resisted by conservatives, reforms only partially successful

ottoman empire

  • called “sick man of europe” due to decline and debt

  • tanzimat reforms modernized military, law, and education

  • introduced more secular, european style systems

  • young ottomans pushed for constitution and parliament

  • limited success, empire still weakened over time

5.9

industrial working class

  • factory workers and miners

  • mostly rural migrants who lost farm jobs due to mechanization

  • unskilled labor → machines did the precision work

  • workers seen as replaceable

  • wages slightly higher than rural life but harsh conditions

  • problems:

    • dangerous factories and mines

    • overcrowded housing

    • disease spread

    • repetitive labor

middle class

  • factory owners, managers, professionals (doctors, lawyers, teachers)

  • “white collar” workers

  • benefited most from industrialization

  • higher income → consumer goods and better lifestyle

  • some rose from working class → belief in “self-made success”

  • often blamed poor people for their own poverty

industrialists (upper class)

  • owners of large factories and corporations

  • sometimes called captains of industry

  • became wealthier and more powerful than traditional aristocracy

  • controlled major parts of the economy

women and industrialization

  • working-class women:

    • worked in factories/mines

    • contributed to family income

  • children:

    • sometimes worked from very young ages

    • later restricted by child labor laws → sent to school

  • middle-class women:

    • usually did not work outside home

    • “separate spheres” ideology

    • focus on home, children, domestic life

urban problems

  • pollution:

    • coal smoke from factories + ships

    • water pollution from waste

  • housing shortages:

    • overcrowded, poorly built tenements

    • bad sanitation → disease (cholera, typhoid)

  • crime increase:

    • poverty + overcrowding

    • theft and violence rise