Political Systems and Party Dynamics

• Parties: Organized groups that seek to gain political power by winning elections.
  Example: The Democratic Party and the Republican Party in the United States.
• Two Party System: A political system dominated by two main parties, resulting in limited roles for third parties.
  Example: The U.S. political landscape, where the Democratic and Republican parties hold significant influence over elections.
• Winner Take All Elections: Electorates where the candidate with the most votes wins, discouraging third-party candidates.
  Example: Electoral votes in the U.S. presidential elections, where a candidate winning a state gets all its electoral votes.
• Biased Legal System: Imbalances in laws and regulations that favor certain groups over others.
  Example: Voter ID laws perceived to disproportionately affect low-income and minority voters.
• Issue Poaching: One party adopts popular policies of another to attract their voters.
  Example: The Democratic Party's adoption of healthcare reforms that were originally proposed by the Republican Party.
• Duverger's Law/Tendency: A principle asserting that single-member district electoral systems favor a two-party system.
  Example: The prevalence of a two-party system in the U.S. is a result of its single-member districts for House elections.
• Proportional Representation: Parties gain seats in proportion to the votes they receive.
  Example: The electoral system in many European countries, such as Sweden, where several parties can gain representation based on vote percentages.
• Matching Funds/Ballot Access: Financial support from public funds for candidates who meet specific requirements.
  Example: The U.S. presidential matching funds program, which provides federal matching funds for candidates who meet contribution criteria.
• Single Member Districts: Electoral districts that elect one representative.
  Example: Each congressional district in the U.S. elects one member to the House of Representatives.
• Multimember Districts: Districts that elect multiple representatives.
  Example: In some states, regional districts elect several state legislators to represent a larger area.
• Third Parties: Political parties other than the two dominant ones.
  Example: The Green Party and the Libertarian Party in the United States.
• Role of Primaries in Promoting Two Parties: Primaries can limit competition for candidates.
  Example: The Democratic and Republican primaries often only feature candidates from their respective parties, reducing third-party influence.
• Why Parties are Useful to Stakeholders and Strategic Politicians: Parties organize campaigns and reduce transaction costs of lawmaking.
  Example: A coalition of business interests forming a political action committee (PAC) under a specific party to streamline lobbying efforts.
• Why Parties may be useful to voters: They promote collective responsibility.
  Example: Political parties offering platforms that present unified solutions to legislative issues for voters to support.

Party Systems

• Sixth Party System: Characterized by shifting coalitions.
  Example: The coalition of progressive Democrats and moderate Republicans against the backdrop of changing demographics and social issues.
• Polarization: The increasing ideological divide between parties.
  Example: The stark contrast in views on healthcare reform between Democrats and Republicans.
• Causes of Polarization: Factors like economic inequality.
  Example: The growing wage gap that has intensified partisan debates on economic policy.
• Politicians Don't Pander: They do not modify their positions easily.
  Example: Senators maintaining firm stances on immigration despite fluctuating public opinion.

Elections

• Voting as a Collective Action Problem: Individuals may refrain from voting.
  Example: A citizen decides not to vote in a local election believing their individual vote won't change the outcome.
• Voting as Delegation: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions.
  Example: Voters selecting members of Congress to decide on new legislation regarding healthcare.
• Doom-Loop Partisanship: A cycle of extreme partisanship.
  Example: Continuous government shutdowns due to inability of the two parties to reach compromises.
• Selective Benefits of Voting: Voting offers personal utilities.
  Example: A voter may feel a sense of pride or fulfillment by participating in the democratic process.
• Institutions/Individual Factors Affecting Voting Probability: Factors include age and education.
  Example: Younger individuals may vote in lower percentages compared to older populations, often influenced by education level.
• Blind Retrospection: Voters may evaluate past performance of parties.
  Example: Citizens attributing their dissatisfaction solely to the incumbent party without considering broader economic trends.
• Predicting Presidential Elections: Key factors include the state of the economy.
  Example: Incumbent presidents often see approval ratings rise or fall based on economic growth or recession.
• Tides of Consent and Midterm Loss: Trends causing electoral losses.
  Example: A sitting president’s party losing seats in Congress during midterm elections following major policy controversies.
• Campaigns: Seen as exaggerated efforts.
  Example: Political advertisements that significantly distort opponents' positions to sway public opinion.
• Unit Rule: A procedure where all delegates from a state cast votes as a bloc.
  Example: In the Electoral College, California's electors voting entirely for the candidate who won the state's popular vote.
• Gerrymandering/Redistricting: Manipulating electoral district boundaries.
  Example: States drawing districts to concentrate votes for one party while minimizing the other’s representation.
• Electoral College: The system used for electing the President.
  Example: The allocation of electoral votes based on state populations, influencing campaign strategies.
• Partisan Leanings of States: Regions displaying distinct voting patterns.
  Example: The South exhibiting strong Republican support in recent elections, contrasting with the liberal leanings of the West Coast.
• Post-2010 Redistricting: Electoral maps significantly changed post-census.
  Example: Changes in states like North Carolina, where maps were drawn to favor the Republican party.
• Trump Realignment: A shift in political alliances due to Trump's presidency.
  Example: Increased support for Republican candidates among working-class voters who may have traditionally voted Democratic.
• Sorting: The political ideology alignment with geographic regions.
  Example: Urban areas leaning Democratic while rural areas lean Republican, influencing local elections.
• Republican Advantage in House Elections: Structural factors giving Republicans an edge.
  Example: The prevalence of Republican-leaning districts resulting from gerrymandering efforts.
• Link Between Polarization in the Electorate and Lawmaking in Congress: Polarization complicating bipartisan lawmaking.
  Example: Frequent disagreements over budget proposals that reflect the polarized attitudes of constituents.
• Party Identification Logic: How identification influences political behavior.
  Example: Individuals primarily voting along party lines rather than for individual candidates or policies.

Congress

• Cracking/Packing/Gerrymandering: Techniques to maximize favorable outcomes.
  Example: Cracking districts that lean Democrat by spreading the voters across several districts to dilute their voting power.
• Redistricting: The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries.
  Example: After the 2020 census, states adjusting their districts to reflect population changes.
• Decennial Census: A census every ten years.
  Example: The 2020 Census providing data crucial for congressional representation adjustments.
• Sorting and Majority Party: How voter sorting influences party strength.
  Example: Increased Republican representation in districts where conservative voters are increasingly concentrated.
• Selection of the House Speaker: The majority party selects its leader.
  Example: Nancy Pelosi's election as Speaker among House Democrats.
• Freedom Caucus: A group advocating for limited government policies within the Republican Party.
  Example: The Freedom Caucus often opposing bipartisan measures that they view as contrary to conservative principles.
• Partisan Conflict: Ongoing struggle between parties.
  Example: Frequent clashes during budget negotiations, leading to government shutdowns.
• Divided Government: Aligned where one party controls the presidency and another controls Congress.
  Example: The presidency under Barack Obama while the House was controlled by Republicans.
• Hastert Rule: House Speaker only allows votes with majority support from their party.
  Example: Speaker John Boehner adhering to this rule during contentious bills leading to significant party unity.
• Speaker of the House: The presiding officer of the House.
  Example: The Speaker sets the legislative agenda and influences which bills are prioritized.
• Committee Jurisdictions: Specialized areas for congressional committees.
  Example: The House Judiciary Committee focusing exclusively on issues related to justice and law.
• Transaction Costs of Lawmaking: Costs associated with creating laws.
  Example: Lengthy negotiations on controversial legislation increasing the time and resources spent in Congress.
• Vacating the Speaker: The process of removing the Speaker from their position.
  Example: A motion to vacate initiated by members within a party under conflicting opinions.
• Filibuster/Cloture: Tactics used in the Senate to extend or end debates.
  Example: A filibuster by a senator to delay voting on a bill, countered by a cloture vote to limit debate time.
• Ideological Moderates: Legislators with centrist views.
  Example: Senators who often cross party lines to collaborate on bipartisan initiatives.
• Rules Committee: A powerful House committee that sets the procedures for legislation.
  Example: The Rules Committee determining how long debates will last on key bills.
• Senate Majority Leader: Leader of the majority party in the Senate.
  Example: Charles Schumer serving as the Senate Majority Leader, managing legislative priorities.
• Budget Reconciliation: A process to expedite consideration of certain fiscal legislation.
  Example: The use of budget reconciliation to pass major healthcare reform with a simple majority.
• Reapportionment: Adjusting the number of representatives based on census data.
  Example: States gaining or losing congressional seats after the 2020 Census.
• House vs. Senate: Differences in membership and terms impacting legislation.
  Example: The House, with short terms and larger numbers, compared to the Senate’s longer terms and smaller membership creating varied legislative dynamics.
• Polarization and Majority Party: Strong ideological divisions empowering the majority party.
  Example: The Republican Party's ability to pass legislation with little Democratic support due to solid party alignment.
• Conditional Party Government: Theory on party leaders' influence related to member ideology.
  Example: Leaders of ideologically aligned caucuses wielding more authority when members support party lines.
• Reed's Rule: Limiting dilatory tactics in House proceedings.
  Example: The application of Reed's Rule to ensure efficient consideration of legislation and curtail excessive debate.
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