Comprehensive Notes on Post-Classical Era (600 CE - 1450 CE)
Post-Classical Era (PCE) Overview
The Post-Classical Era (PCE) spanned from 600 CE to 1450 CE.
Also known as the Medieval Period or Middle Ages, especially in European history.
Characterized by the growth and collapse of empires due to diffusion and power struggles.
Major Trends During the PCE:
Exploration.
Conquest.
Trade.
Factors Influencing Empires:
Foreign invasions.
Internal power struggles.
Political unrest.
Economic hardship.
Cultural change.
Major Themes
Religion.
New trading systems.
These themes caused tension within empires.
Materialism: Focus on wealth acquisition.
Increased due to trade facilitating internal and external goods flow.
Clash of Philosophies.
Buddhism vs Islam vs Christanity.
Exchange of Goods.
Molded the PCE and generated new revenue streams.
Technological Advancements.
Shift from old to new technologies spread through trade.
Examples: gunpowder, movable type, ships, and paper in China; metal armor in Mongolia; horse saddles from Africa.
Exploration and Trade
City Development: Many cities developed during this era.
Spain and Portugal:
Naval expeditions led to the discovery and exploitation of the Americas in the 15th century.
Portugal created trade ports along the western and eastern coasts of Africa.
The British later used Portuguese ports for gold mining.
Portugal established a colony in Brazil in 1532, with sugar plantations using Amerindian and later African slaves.
Amerindian Definition:
Collective term for indigenous peoples of the Americas under European domination.
Spain
Controlled the Caribbean Islands after Christopher Columbus's voyage in 1492.
Established a colony in the Dominican Republic in 1493.
Conquered Cuba and Puerto Rico and maintained control in Panama.
Maritime Exploration: Influential in expanding trading networks.
Advancements in naval technology made maritime trade more accessible.
New shipping advancements included:
Sternpost rudder.
Lateen sails.
Three-masted caravels.
Enabled safer and more efficient oceanic exploration.
Navigation tools like magnetic compasses and astrolabes improved efficiency.
Mediterranean Trade Network: Similar to the Silk Road.
Larger ships facilitated travel across the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, enabling conquests.
Naval trade allowed for mass export and import, unlike land routes with caravan limitations.
Access to naval trade routes boosted the economy and technology dispersion but also allowed easier invasions.
Vikings: A warring race from Scandinavia.
Raided ports along the coasts of Britain and France using long ships from the ninth century onwards.
Established Viking settlements in the British Isles and coastal France.
Penetrated waterways of Eastern Europe, developing trading posts with Russians.
Influenced Russian culture and technology; Novgorod grew as a trading riverport.
Indian Ocean Trade: Gained prominence by the mid-15th century.
Geographically larger version of the Mediterranean Sea, connecting multiple continents.
Predictable winds and currents enabled accessible trading seasons for Muslim merchants.
Islam spread widely in Southeast Asia due to Muslim merchants.
Trade Networks vs. Classical Era:
Human interaction strengthened through new and existing routes connecting Afro-Eurasia and the Americas.
Global trade caused economic booms and wealth spread via cross-cultural exchange.
Advancements in politics, transportation, economic structures, and human movement.
Supported diffusion of trade, ideology, and technology.
Nomadic and pastoral tribes facilitated the growth of trade routes.
Trade: The good and the bad.
Pros
Spread of resources
Access to new lands
New Technology
Dispersion of culture
Cons
Spread of disease
Extortion of resources
Ease of access of invasion
World regions were drawn closer together via trade and the desire to find new routes for the exchange of goods.
China and Europe During the PCE
China: Most populous nation in East Asia and a formidable cultural force.
Experienced continual cultural and political changes.
Europe: Growing network of Christian kingdoms.
Testing its weight as a growing network of Christian kingdoms.
Xuanzang: An intrepid spiritual traveler.
Left for India against the emperor's wishes in 630.
Spent 12 years in India, bringing back relics, books, philosophies, and technology.
Translated Buddhist treatises into Chinese, popularizing Buddhism.
Silk Production: China had the largest economy due to silk.
Leader in technology, promoting urbanization and commercialization.
Story of Christian Monks: Two monks from Persia.
Observed silk worm production in China and smuggled silkworm eggs to the Byzantine Empire.
Transformed the Byzantine economy.
Silk Road: Named after the importance of silk.
Connected to the far Western edge of China.
Chinese Dynasties in the PCE:
Sui Dynasty (589-618):
Established after the fall of the Han Dynasty.
Created an organized system of government, centralizing power and establishing internal order.
Reunited China under Wen Di (founder).
Initiated reforms for the construction of the Grand Canal, connecting Northern and Southern China.
Established granaries for a steady food source.
Promoted the development of the Great Wall of China.
Fell due to resentment and rebellion against the emperor.
Tang Dynasty:
Expanded towards Central Asia, Manchuria, Vietnam, and Tibet.
Constructed the Great Wall for militaristic defenses.
Advanced junk ships allowing for naval travel.
Implemented paper currency, introducing monetary commerce and credit.
Philosophical dynasty emphasizing Buddhism and Confucianism.
Major Accomplishments of the Tang Dynasty
The rise of Confucianism
Buddhism Revival
The Growth of many industrious cities
The Tang Dynasty Brought numerous achievements into the country. From printing presses, timekeepers, and gun powder.
Emperor Wanted to make the journey along the silk road less dangerous.
Politically turned to Confucianism
Created a system of checks and balances.
Mandatory written exam
Officials would parallel their work habits with Confucian philosophy.
Empress Wu: The only female ruler of China.
Her rule challenged the traditional subservience of women in Chinese culture.
Neo-Confucianism: hybrid between Confucianism and Buddhism.
Emphasis on traditional values: family relations, respect, gender roles, respect to figures of authority
Sung Dynasty (960-1279):
Succeeded the Tang, ushering in greater material prosperity.
Inventions included catapults, moveable type, and the compass.
Promoted trade along the Silk Road, boosting the economy.
The merchant class became more valuable.
Developed a centralized bureaucracy due to mercantilism.
Eventually fell due to the invasion of Mongols.
Common Traits of Chinese Dynasties
Maintaining order.
Establishing a centralized system of rules.
Assisting in the growth of China through conquest, exploration, and alliances.
Increased volume of trade via land and sea routes.
Religious Syncretism
Blending of cultures and ideologies, especially within China's shifting dynasties.
Cross-cultural exchange led to the tolerance of religion and the hybrid of religions.
Example: Mahayana Buddhism became popular in China.
Medieval Europe and the Crusades
Medieval or post-classical Europe was marked by the Crusades.
European Christian kingdoms sought to retake the Holy Land from the Muslims.
Interactions surged between Eurasian tribes and Muslim invaders.
Positive effects in cultural transmission but also led to European feudalism and invasions.
Major Crusades (1095-1204)
Religious, economic, and political motives.
Christians believed the Holy Land should be under Christian control.
Pope Urban II called for action in 1095 to ward off Muslim forces.
Jerusalem was taken in 1099.
Famous crusaders included Richard the Lionheart and Bohemond of Tancred.
Muslims countered with threats of jihad.
The Third Crusade ended in 1187 when the Muslims pushed back under the leadership of Saladin an Arab Muslim general determined to take back Jerusalem
The Fourth Crusade saw Western Christian forces loot Constantinople.
The Byzantines had lost territory to the Muslims and were betrayed by their western Christian brethren.
Crusades poisoned relations between Eastern and Western Christians.
Cultural diffusion: Europeans exposed to new food, spices, silks, and gemstones.
Medical and herbal practices transfused into European knowledge.
Islam in the Post-Classical Era
Second largest religion, succeeding Judaism and Christianity.
Followers are called Muslims.
Monotheistic religion.
Bases its foundation on the Five Pillars of Faith:
Profession of belief.
Prayer.
Charity.
Fasting.
Pilgrimage.
The rise of Islam led to the cultural unification of Eurasia in an economically beneficial way.
Before the rise of Islam the Middle East was largely divided along tribal lines, with largely unorganized trade routes.
The emergence of Islam, during the seventh century CE, would eventually provide a unifying faith for the Arabian people.
Muhammad: The Prophet.
Born in Mecca into the Quraysh tribe.
Known as the last prophet in the Islamic faith.
Preaching of doctrine often shunned.
Fled Mecca to Yathrib (Medina).
Mobilized support, converted Medina, and returned victorious to Mecca.
Islam: Literally means Submission.
Muslims: One who submits.
The rise of Islam contributed to the region's growth and the conception of their own political identity.
Conquest through military expansion promoted the advancement of the Islamic Empire.
Islam had five major pillars or requirements of its believers.
Faith in Allah, along with the acceptance of Mohammad as the final prophet
Prayer conducted five times a day, facing Mecca.
Fasting or abstinence from food and drink during the daylight hours of the holy month of Ramadan.
Alms, or the provision of money to the poor.
The Hajj. The Hajj is a pilgrimage, or religious journey, to the holy city of Mecca
Division of Islam into the Sunni and Shi'a sects.
Developed after the death of Muhammad in 632 CE.
Conflict revolved around Muhammad's successor.
Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law) vs. Ali (Muhammad's cousin).
Supporters of Abu Bakr became part of the Sunni faction.
Those who supported Ali's succession became part of the Shi'a Islamic faction.
Caliph: Applied to the political successors of Muhammad.
Argument: a caliph should be a direct descendant of Muhammad.
Those in favor aligned with the Shi'ite or Shia sect.
Those who believed the successor could be anyone from the Ummah, sided with Abu Bakr, became the Sunni sect.
Expansion of the Empire.
Expanded through conquest into Eurasia and Africa.
The Arabian Peninsula, Persia, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt would all be absorbed into the Islamic Empire.
Gradually, the rise of Islam became less of a religious movement and more of a conquest of territory.
Umayyad Caliphate:
Took power after Ali's assassination in 661.
Changes deemed corrupt and offensive to Muslims.
Newly converted Muslims treated as second-class citizens.
Jews and Christians allowed to practice but paid additional taxes.
The political center shifted from Damascus to Cordoba in Spain.
Wealth hoarded by elite classes.
Dissolution of the Umayyad Dynasty due to tension.
Abbasids:
Succeeded the Umayyad, ruling from Baghdad.
Overthrew the Umayyad in 758.
Adopted Persian cultural traits.
Halted military expansion and provided more tolerance for non-Muslims.
Scholars worked to create an intellectual culture.
The introduction of neo-Confucianism and Buddhism in East Asia, paralleled by the spread of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa as well as South East Asia.
Through this movement of religious influence across continents during the PCE interaction between cultures assisted in the diffusion of new norms.
That include new social, technological, and scientific transfusions of thought.
Islam emerged in a region that was underdeveloped which grew in riches, wealth, and intellectual capital.
And extended westward as far as Spain and eastward as far as Southeast Asia
Islam spread throughout Anatolia and Persia by force
Much of the faith was spread in Africa and Southeast Asia by trade and commerce rather than conflict.
While the rise of Islam brought power and prestige to the Arab peoples It also saw the loss of massive amounts of land by the Byzantine empire and the destruction of Zoroastrian Persia.
Hinduism in the Post-Classical Era
One of the world's oldest religious traditions, and is still the main religion in modern India.
Unlike Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the Hindu tradition is rooted in scripture known as the Vedas, which form a unique faith tradition.
Originated among the Sanskrit-speaking people of northern India around 5500 BCE.
Not founded by a single founder or authoritative text.
Divine oneness expressed in multiple deities, making it polytheistic.
Insightful eye (darsan) emphasizing introspection and communion with the divine oneness.
Upanishads: Collection of mystical writings (800-200 BCE).
Brahma: Divine force of creation.
Key Hindu Gods and Goddesses
Each represent aspects of the divine oneness.
Agni.
Indra.
Shiva.
Vishnu.
Krishna.
Ganesha.
Concept of Maya as it applies to Hinduism
Hindu philosophy divides the world into the physical, maya, versus the soul, atman.
Hindu teachings on life, death and the afterlife are quite different from those of the Abrahamic tradition.
In Hinduism, the soul, atman, takes on a physical body through different cycles of death and rebirth.
Hinduism has no everlasting heavens or hells.
A person's deeds manifest as either good or bad energy known as karma.
A soul can be reborn as another being in heaven, hell, or a new living being on Earth, either in human or animal form.
Reincarnation/ Samsara
Is this cycle of death and rebirth that a soul goes through until reaching moksha, which is the Hindu concept of release from the cycle of life and death
The Caste System
Social stratification system.
Castes = Varnas in the Sanskrit and Hindi languages.
Functional in ancient India, each caste had responsibilities in the social hierarchy.
Brahmins (priests): Religious temples.
Kshatriyas (rulers and soldiers): Governed and defended.
Vaishyas (merchants).
Shudras (laborers, peasants, servants).
Subcastes (jatis) prescribe more specific roles.
Dalits (untouchables) outside the caste system, performing the most polluting jobs.
Inequality and discrimination in modern South Asia.
Since India's independence in 1948, the government has actively tried to eliminate caste discrimination.
Hinduism is both a faith as well as a culture.
Buddhism in the Post-Classical Era
Originated with Siddhartha Gautama (c. 430 BCE), a prince from Nepal.
Siddhartha Gautama left his home to become a traveling ascetic, moving from place to place in search of spiritual enlightenment
Siddhartha Gautama Followed the Ascetic life for 6 years, before deciding that a middle path between mortification and indulgence of the body will provide the best hope of achieving enlightenment.
Believed to have become a Buddha (enlightened person) while meditating under a peepal tree.
Core Teachings
Four Noble Truths.
Eightfold Path.
Focused on spiritual enlightenment away from Hindu deities.
Hinduism was focused on external rituals and regard for elaborate mythology, Buddhism evolved as a faith practice centered on rejection of earlier Vedic legalism, with a great focus on personal reflection.
Four Noble Truths.
Pain is inextricably part of mankind’s everyday life.
Our desires of all kinds are the cause of this pain.
That the way out of this cycle is to free one's self of these desires.
Finally, this can be achieved by following the Eightfold Path.
Eightfold path
A set of prescriptions for a morally righteous life that involves upholding high morals in eight different aspects of life.
Right understanding of the Four Noble Truths.
Right thought.
Right speech.
Right conduct.
Respect, non-violence, no stealing, no sexual impropriety.
Right livelihood.
Right attitude.
Right mindfulness.
Right concentration.
Nirvana, The ultimate goal of Buddhist life, is a communion with the divine oneness of all creation.
Spread of Buddhism
Travelling Buddhist ascetics and monks contributed to the faith's spread between 380 and 250 BCE.
Spread throughout South Asia into China, Southeast Asia, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan.
Trade routes through the Silk Road played a key role in transmission.
Emperor Ashoka (Mauryan dynasty, 268-232 BCE) converted to Buddhism after the bloody war against Kalinga in 261 BCE.
Ahisma - nonviolence
Ashoka ceased expansionist policies and ruled more benevolently.
Increased Buddhist monastic activity and inscriptions.
Mesoamerica (1200-750 BCE)
Distinct civilizations developed in the Americas.
Olmecs: In Mesoamerica contributed to the architectural and spiritual development of the Mayan and Aztec civilizations.
Chavín: In the Andean Mountain Region had profound regard for natural elements and a well-developed conception of the metaphysical.