Theories of Motivation
Arousal Theory
Overview
Proposed by Harvard professor Harry Murray in the 1930s.
Suggests an optimal level of arousal leads to increased motivation and performance.
Examples include: a student studying attentively when arousal is optimal.
Key Points
Individuals are driven by emotional needs (love, achievement, power, affiliation).
Arousal influences behavior:
High levels may cause anxiety or stress.
Low levels may lead to boredom.
Optimal arousal is essential for being "in the zone."
Individual differences exist in arousal needs; some prefer higher stimulation while others thrive in calm settings.
Criticism
Oversimplifies human arousal; arousal is influenced by various factors.
Background
Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance improves with arousal up to an optimal point, after which it declines (inverted U-shaped curve).
Incentive Theory
Overview
Associated with psychologist B.F. Skinner (1938).
Suggests behaviors are influenced primarily by external incentives rather than internal states.
Key Points
Incentives can be positive (rewards) or negative (avoiding punishment).
Example: Earning good grades motivates students.
The theory contrasts with intrinsic motivation theories that emphasize internal drives.
Criticism
Overlooks internal motivators like emotions or personal values.
Drive Reduction Theory
Overview
Developed by Clark Hull in the 1940s and 50s.
Suggests behavior is motivated by the need to reduce physiological imbalances (drives).
Key Points
Based on homeostasis: a stable internal state (e.g., eating when hungry, drinking when thirsty).
Individuals act to restore balance when drives are activated.
Criticism
Fails to explain behaviors that do not reduce drives (e.g., eating when not hungry).
Does not account for secondary reinforcers (e.g., money).
Sensation-Seeking Theory
Overview
Developed by Marvin Zuckerman in the 1960s.
Explores the need for varied and intense experiences; individuals seeking excitement are "sensation seekers."
Components
Thrill and Adventure Seeking: Engaging in physically risky activities (skydiving).
Experience Seeking: Pursuing new experiences (traveling to unusual places).
Disinhibition: Seeking social activities that allow letting loose (parties).
Boredom Susceptibility: Low tolerance for routine; preference for excitement.
Examples
A skydiver represents thrill-seeking.
An adventurous traveler identifies experience-seeking.
Motivational Conflict Theory
Overview
Developed by Kurt Lewin in the 1930s.
Focuses on how people navigate conflicting desires in decision-making.
Types of Conflicts
Approach-Approach: Choosing between two desirable options (friend’s wedding vs. concert).
Avoidance-Avoidance: Choosing between two undesirable options (tooth extraction vs. pain).
Approach-Avoidance: A single option with both attractive and unattractive aspects (high-paying job far from family).
Self-Determination Theory of Motivation
Overview
Developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in the 1980s.
Focuses on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.
Key Points
Intrinsic Motivation: Doing something for the enjoyment (e.g., reading a novel).
Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something for a reward (e.g., studying for grades).
The theory posits three innate needs:
Autonomy: Need for control over one's actions.
Competence: Feeling effective in activities.
Relatedness: Connecting with others.
Meeting these needs fosters intrinsic motivation, well-being, performance, and persistence.
Instinct Theory
Overview
Developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Influenced by Charles Darwin; emphasizes inherited traits and behaviors.
Key Points
Humans and animals engage in instinctual behaviors for survival (e.g., caring for offspring).
According to this theory, such behaviors guide actions without needing to learn.
Criticism
Difficult to scientifically test instincts; not all behaviors are instinctual.