China and Japan 1912-1945

Learning Objectives

Understand the reasons for the growth of Chinese nationalism (1912-1945).
Understand the reasons for, and implications of, the increasing popularity of both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (1912-1927).
Learn about the reasons for, and implications of, increasing rivalry between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (1927-1945).
Assess the failure of democracy in Japan and its implications for Japan itself, China, and wider international relations.

Timeline

Oct 1899-1901: boxer rebellion
Oct 1911: Revolution in China.
Jan 1912: Abdication of the last Chinese Emperor.
Aug 1912: Establishment of the Kuomintang.
Jan 1915: Japan issues China with the Twenty-One Demands.
Jul 1914-18: First World War.
May 1919: Beginning of the May Fourth Movement in China.
Jul 1921: Formation of the Chinese Communist Party.
1921-22: Washington Naval Conference.
Mar 1925: Death of Sun Yat-sen.
Mar 1927: Beginning of the Kuomintang's Purification Movement.
Jul 1926: Chiang Kai-shek begins the Northern March.
Dec 1928: Kuomintang forces take control of Peking (Beijing).
Sep 1931: Japanese invasion of Manchuria.
Nov 1931: Mao Tse-tung elected Chairman of the Soviet Republic of China.
Feb 1933: Japan withdraws from the League of Nations.
Mar 1934: The Long March sets out in China.
Nov 1936: Japan signs the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany.
Jun 1941: German invasion of the USSR.
Dec 1941: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
Nov 1941: Japan breaks off diplomatic relations with the USA.
Dec 1941: Japan declares war against the USA and Britain.
1937-45: Sino-Japanese War.

Chinese Nationalism and the Boxer Rebellion

What it was:

A rebellion initiated by Chinese nationalists (Boxers).
Occurred from 1898 to 1901.
Initially opposed by the Manchu government, which later supported it and declared war against foreign powers.
Suppressed by an eight-nation alliance (Britain, Russia, Japan, France, USA, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary).
The Manchu government was forced to pay compensation for damage to foreign-owned property.

Why it took place

Chinese nationalists were angered by the government's failure to prevent foreign influence.
Erosion of the Manchu dynasty's power during the 19th century due to Western exploitation of trading opportunities.
Confirmation of China's weaknesses after defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95).
Foreign countries fighting on Chinese territory (e.g., Manchuria during the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05) without the Manchu government's influence.
Internal rebellions challenged the Manchu government, demanding reform and modernization.

The 'Warlord Era' in China (1916-1928)

During the 19th century, the Manchu dynasty's power was eroded by Western powers exploiting trading opportunities.
Defeat against Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) confirmed China's weaknesses.
During the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), foreign countries fought on Chinese territory (Manchuria) without the Manchu government's influence.
Internal rebellions challenged the Manchu government, demanding reform and modernization.
Empress Tzu-Hsi opposed reform and used warlords and foreign powers to suppress rebellions.
Japan modernized in response to foreign intervention, but Tzu-Hsi purged her government of modernization supporters.
Dynasty: A line of hereditary rulers. Qing dynasty ruled China from 1644 to 1912.
Purge: To remove people considered undesirable or harmful in a political context. Areas of foreign influence in China c.1900
- Areas of foreign influence in China c.1900 included:
  - British
  - French
  - German
  - Japanese
  - Russian
  - Treaty Ports
  - Original port opened by Treaty of Nanjing (1842)
  - Treaty port opened by 1900
  - Major cities

Westernization and Demands for Reform

China's traditional culture was undermined as schools offered Western-style education, and thousands of Chinese students were educated abroad.
European books were translated into Chinese, and the traditional examination system based on Confucian ideas was abolished in 1905.
China began industrialization, constructing coal mines, iron foundries, cotton factories, roads, and railways.
Many educated Chinese argued that political systems needed significant change for China to defend itself against foreign interference.

Sun Yat-sen and the Revive China Society

Sun Yat-sen was an influential figure who believed China needed Western democracy, agriculture, and industry.
He founded the Revive China Society in 1894 and merged with other anti-government groups to form the Tongmenhui (Revolutionary Alliance) in 1905.
The Tongmenhui aimed to overthrow the Manchu dynasty and establish a republican government.
Sun Yat-sen left China in 1895, touring Europe and the USA to raise money for the Save China League and develop his vision for China's governance.
Sun Yat-sen was educated abroad and graduated as a doctor of medicine.
He became a professional revolutionary, touring Europe and the USA to raise funds for the Save China League.
Risking imprisonment and possible execution, he returned to China several times to campaign for a revolution against the Manchu dynasty, but he was in the USA when the revolution finally took place in 1911.

The Xinhai Revolution and Yuan Shih-kai

The Manchu dynasty's power weakened after Empress Tzu-Hsi's death in 1908, leaving three-year-old Pu Yi as heir to the throne.
In October 1911, the Xinhai Revolution began in Wuchang among soldiers angered by the government's compensation to foreigners for the Boxer Rebellion.
The uprising spread, and most provinces declared independence from the central government in Peking (Beijing).
The Manchu government asked Yuan Shih-kai to return from retirement as prime minister.
Yuan gained control of the powerful Beiyang army.
Beiyang army: The imperial Chinese army established by the Manchu Dynasty in the 19th century.
Yuan Shih-Kai (1859-1916)
Yuan Shih-Kai was a warlord and a general in the Chinese army
He gained considerable influence within the Manchu dynasty, helping to defend it against rebellions.
When the Manchu dynasty ended, he became president of the Republic of China, but was forced to resign when he lost the support of the army in 1915. He died shortly afterwards

Establishment of the Republic of China

Following the Wuchang uprisings, Sun Yat-sen returned to China.
The Revolutionary Alliance joined with other parties to form the Kuomintang (Guomindang).
Kuomintang (KMT): A Chinese political party, sometimes known as the Nationalist Party of China, formed after the Wunchang uprisings in 1911. It was founded by Sun Yat-sen.
Sun was elected as 'Provisional President of the United Provinces of China' in December 1911 and announced the establishment of the Republic of China in January 1912, with its government based in Nanking.
Sun's authority was limited due to the lack of a constitution, an empty treasury, and divided provinces.
The country was divided between the north and south, with the Manchu government in Peking led by Yuan Shih-kai and backed by the Beiyang army.

Yuan Shih-kai's Presidency and Dictatorship

Yuan Shih-kai became president of the Republic of China after negotiations with Sun Yat-sen, who agreed that Yuan would arrange for the emperor's abdication, unifying China as a republic with Yuan as president.
In March 1912, Pu Yi abdicated, and Yuan was declared president, leading the Beiyang Government based in Peking.
Yuan Shih-kai, opposed to reform, had helped Empress Tsu-Hsi retain power and became influential within the Manchu government.
Following Yuan's appointment as president, the KMT won elections.
Yuan established himself as a military dictator, suppressing political opponents.
Sun Yat-sen fled to Japan and urged rebellion against Yuan's government.
Yuan suppressed the rebellion in 1913, banned the KMT, and dismissed its members from the government.
Military dictator: Someone whose control over a country's affairs is made possible by personal control over the armed forces.
Yuan gradually assumed complete control of the government with the backing of the Beiyang army.
In 1914, he dismissed the Chinese parliament and issued a new constitution, giving the president complete power over China's military, economy, foreign policy, and civil laws.

Yuan's Declining Popularity and Death

Yuan's authority was limited as many provinces opposed centralized government.
His popularity declined when he accepted Japan's Twenty-One Demands in 1915.
In December 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of China, causing widespread anger.
Revolutionary groups and the army opposed the restoration of the monarchy.
Several provinces declared independence, and Yuan resigned and died shortly after, having been emperor for only 83 days.

Disintegration of China and the Warlord Era

Yuan Shih-Kai's death in 1916 led to the disintegration of China into small states controlled by warlords.
Li Yuan-Hung became president but lacked army support.
Warlords were more concerned with their political powers than with China's national interests, causing misery and hardship.
Warlord armies increased from approximately 500,000 in 1916 to over one million by 1918 and two million in 1928.
This was due to the breaking apart of the Chinese army following Yuan Shih-Kai’s resignation.
Warlords allowed soldiers to loot and steal, attracting young men from poor rural areas.
The main aim of warlords was to gain wealth by increasing taxes and seizing businesses.
Large numbers of peasants were driven from their land, with unemployment reaching 168 million by 1925.

The Peking Government and Warlord Conflicts

The government in Peking accessed foreign loans and customs revenue, making it a target for warlords.
Warlords fought for control of the government, leading to instability and corruption.
Some warlords attempted to improve the lives of the people they dominated, such as Yan Xishan.
Most warlords were corrupt, violent, and selfish rulers.
In 1917, Sun Yat-sen returned to China from exile in Japan and formed a KMT government in Canton, opposing the Peking government.
He relied on assistance from southern warlords and was unable to extend KMT authority beyond Canton.

Complete Disintegration of China by 1918

By 1918, the Peking government was weak and had limited authority, leading to economic stagnation.
The country was politically divided, with warlords fighting for control in the north and Sun Yat-sen's KMT government in the south.
Neither government could control China's provinces, where warlords established their own laws.

Radical Ideas and the May Fourth Movement

Ineffective central government, lack of reforms, and warlord violence encouraged radical and revolutionary ideas.
Hatred of warlords provided a common aim for revolutionary groups.
Chinese intellectuals and writers argued for reform to recover and survive.
The New Culture Movement, formed by 1915, claimed China's weakness was due to outdated traditions and advocated Western values.

The New Culture Movement and Student Activism

The New Culture Movement's ideas attracted Chinese students.
Student publications criticized traditional Chinese culture and advocated Western culture for industrialization, ending foreign interference, destroying warlords, and reunifying China.
Student activists instigated the events of May 4, 1919.

The Paris Peace Conference and Shantung Province

China expected to reclaim territories in Shantung Province occupied by Germany after fighting with the Allies in WWI.
China's representatives were ignored at the Paris Peace Conference, which initially decided that the German areas in Shantung should go to Japan.

Students viewed this as an unacceptable humiliation.

The May Fourth Movement

Radical students at Peking University drafted a manifesto outlining their aims.
On May 4, 1919, approximately 5000 students demonstrated in Peking against Japan's occupation of Shantung Province and the weakness of China's government.
They demanded an end to the Twenty-One Demands, boycotted Japanese products, and insisted that the government refuse to sign the Paris peace settlement.
Further demands included the resignation of government officials accused of collaborating with the Japanese.

Government Response and Spread of Protests

The government dispersed the protesters and arrested nearly 40 leaders, sparking strikes by students across China.
100,000 workers in Shanghai declared a week-long general strike in early June.
The government released the student prisoners and refused to sign the peace treaty granting control of Shantung Province to Japan.

Impact and Significance of the May Fourth Movement

The Paris Peace Conference accepted the views of the Chinese government, deciding that control of Shantung Province should rest with China.
Chinese warlords secretly made deals giving Japan extensive rights in Shantung in exchange for financial support.
Chinese historians believe that the May Fourth Movement was an intellectual revolution that had a major impact on the future of China.
The movement marked the beginning of the struggle to restore the integrity and maintain the unity of China.
It promoted Chinese nationalism and encouraged the adoption of modern social, political, economic, and cultural ideas.

Key Aspects of the May Fourth Movement

Advocated the eradication of traditional Confucian values, replacing them with Western concepts of democracy, individual freedom, and the development of science and industry.
Led to changes in the written form of the Chinese language, improving accessibility and literacy.
Marked the emergence of a working class aware of its power through industrial action.
Helped shape the early ideologies of China's main political parties, such as the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

Reasons for the growth of the CCP

The Chinese Communist Party Founded by people such as Chen Dexui, who had been actively involved, founded int 1921 was to establish by revolutionary means the state of the working class in putiting a stop to internal and external pillagin
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was established by people, such as Chen Duxiu, who had been actively involved in the May Fourth Movement.
Its aim was 'to establish by revolutionary means a state of the working class in order to create a government and laws to put a stop to internal and external pillaging'.
At first, the CCP was a small and relatively insignificant group of intellectuals.
Fewer than 20 people attended its first meeting in 1921, and its membership remained below 1000 by 1925.
However, the CCP quickly established connections with, and gained support from, Soviet Russia.

Relations with Soviet Russia

A communist government had been established in Russia following the 1917 revolution.
The new Russian government founded the Comintern (Communist International) in March 1919.
The Comintern viewed the revolutionary statements of many Chinese intellectuals an opportunity to spread communist ideology in Asia.
The official establishment of the CCP in 1921 resulted from a series of meetings between Chen Duxiu and a Comintern agent.
The Comintern was well aware that the CCP lacked the size and influence required to bring about significant political change in China.
It seemed logical for the CCP to join forces with Sun Yat-sen's Kuomintang (KMT) party, which had a larger membership and which was also advocating political reform.
Meetings between Sun Yat-sen and Adolf Joffe, a Russian diplomat, resulted in the formation in 1923 of the First United Front - a union between the CCP and the KMT.
Chinese communists became members of the KMT.

KMT and Soviet Assistance

The KMT was not a communist party, although Sun realised the advantages to be gained by working with the recently formed CCP.
Russian advisors helped to create a more efficient structure for the KMT across southern China and were important in developing the KMT's army into a more effective fighting force.
A military academy was established at Whampoa to train KMT officers.
Sun chose Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), who was sent to Moscow to receive military training, to head the Academy.
Chiang's brief was to ensure that the KMT could both defend itself against attack by warlord armies and also begin to expand its power base outside the Canton area.

Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek

*Chiang Kai-shek had received Military training in Japan prior to the First World War.
*As ardent nationalist he joined the KMT and quickly became influential.
*He was charged with the KMT's military developments.
*He emerged as the leader of the KMT following Sun Yat Sen's death 1925.

Although they enjoyed a close friendship, Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek had different backgrounds, characters and political beliefs.
Sun spent much of his life in the West, exposed to western methods of education and political ideologies, and developed a firm belief in the importance of democracy and political reform.
Chiang was steeped in Chinese traditions and culture, believing that their preservation was vital to the country's resurgence.
Sun was the intellectual thinker, the revolutionary philosopher, sharing many of the beliefs that had led to the May Fourth Movement.
Chiang was the soldier, the man of action opposed to fundamental changes in China's social and political traditions.
They did, however, have one thing in common - total commitment to Chinese nationalism and the development of a unified country independent of foreign influence and interference.

Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles

Sun Yat-sen's political philosophy and aims are most clearly expressed in what he referred to as the Three Principles, as outlined in his book Fundamentals of National Reconstruction published in 1923.
These principles were in some cases copied from traditional ideals, in other cases modelled on European theory and experience.

Nationalism - for China to become a strong and unified country, respected abroad and without foreign interference.
Democracy - for China to adopt a democratic system of government, in which the people could elect their own leaders rather than being controlled by dynasties or warlords.
Social and economic reform - the ending of China's rigid class system and improved conditions for the peasants and working classes.
*Sun Yat Sen believed that Imperialism of the Western Nations was the main cause of the disintegration of China.
*In 1925, Sun Yat-sen stated conviction that elevation to freedom, ally among the people.

Popular Support for the KMT and its Limitations

Popular support for the KMT increased, particularly in Kwangtung Province where it was based and where its aims became widely known.
There were several reasons for this:
- The KMT reflected the growth in Chinese nationalism, its primary aim being to create a unified China free from foreign interference.
- Sun's Three Principles were very much in line with the views of those students and intellectuals who supported the May Fourth Movement.
- The KMT appeared to offer the prospect of ending the violent chaos caused by the warlords - in particular, shopkeepers, merchants and businessmen saw the KMT as the best chance of protecting their profits from warlord greed and competition caused by foreign interests in China.
- Collaboration with the communists broadened the appeal of the KMT - its popularity increased amongst those sections of Chinese society, such as peasants and factory workers, who were already attracted by the CCP's promise of social and economic reform.

Divisions Within the KMT

The growth in support for the KMT disguised fundamental differences in the aims of its members.
There was little agreement regarding how that reunified and independent China would be governed.
Communist members of the KMT wanted a revolution to bring about major political, social and economic reform.
Shopkeepers, merchants and businessmen, fearing that such a revolution would destroy their social status and profits, wanted a China governed in the traditional manner.

Divisions and Chiang Kai-shek

Divisions within the KMT were highlighted with struggle with leadership for the KMT after Sun's death in 1925.
March 1925 Sun's death led to a power struggle for leadership of KMT.
By January 1926, communists held influential position, great threat to Chiang for desire of leadership.
Due to the communists in strategic important posts Chiang was not sure of his bid for leader.
on March 20th known as the Shanghai massacre communists removed from NRA declared himself leader.

The Northern Expedition

Despite growing support, due in small part to collaboration with the CCP, the KMT's authority remained confined to Kwangtung Province.
The rest of China was still dominated by the warlords and their private armies.
If the KMT was to achieve its aim of reunifying China under a single government, in line with Sun's first Principle, it would need to confront and defeat the warlords.
Preparations for this had begun as early as 1922, and by July 1926 Chiang felt ready to put the plans into action.
He began the Northern Expedition, a military advance northwards through China.
By the end of 1926, the KMT had defeated two warlord armies and gained control over all land in China south of the Yangtze River.

Factors in the KMT's Rapid Success

The Expedition was the result of four years of detailed planning.
Russian advisers had helped to develop the KMT's military strength and political organisation.
Despite the fact that Chiang was clearly opposed to communism, the Northern Expedition retained the assistance of Soviet military advisors.
Stalin believed that a united China would be of benefit to the USSR - a friendly country that would end the Soviet Union's isolation.
The NRA was extremely well organised and had been well prepared for the situations it would encounter during its march northwards through China.
Its officers had undergone detailed training, largely at the Whampoa Military Academy but, in some cases, in the USSR or Japan.
Moreover, the NRA was well equipped with modern weapons from the USSR, Germany and Japan.

Defeat and Disorganization of Warlord Armies

Conversely, the warlord armies were largely disorganised and, compared to the NRA, poorly equipped.
They were designed to control and exploit local people, such as peasants, who were in no position to defend themselves.
Their soldiers were either young men keen to make a living by looting, or mercenaries paid by the warlords.
- Mercenary: a soldier who joins an army purely for money rather than to support a cause.
Many of these armies simply dispersed when confronted by the highly efficient NRA, their warlord leaders seeking refuge elsewhere in China.
Some of the warlords, hoping to retain their regional power by defeating rival warlords, allied their armies with the NRA.

Popular Support for the KMT and Growth of the NRA

Ordinary Chinese people were weary of the violence and exploitation incited by the warlords.
They welcomed and supported the KMT forces, believing that they would restore order and bring peace.
Many Chinese people joined the KMT forces as they marched through southern China.
The army at Chiang's disposal grew from 100,000 in July 1926 to over 250,000 by the end of that year.

Divisions Within KMT Leadership Threatening of the NRA's Success

*Wang Ching-wei and Chaing Kai-shek created split in leadership, Wang was close associate of Sun Yat Sen with sharing of bringing democracy, unlike China was little interested.

In 1927, divisions appeared within the leadership of the KMT threatening the NRA's success.
Wang Ching-wei prepared to work with CCP unlike traditional Chiang who had no interest to social reform.
By April 1927 KMT established in Wuhan led Wang, one in Nanchang led Chiang.

Continuation of Northern Expedition and International Recognition

Despite divisions, KMT force continued march taking control of Hankow, Shanghai and Nanking during 1927.
Peking fell to KMT forces in 1928 with legitimate government recognized.
Centre of Government moved from Peking to Nanking remaining KMT stronghold.

Successes and Limitations of the KMT

The success of the northern expedition, was that Chiang had removed the power of the warlords, power of Chinese Communist Party, becoming China's political and military leader.
In reality, the KMT nominally controlled the whole country but authority was restricted in southern/central areas.
The warlord armies were not destroyed, rather dispersed with leaders surviving.
Military Commanders created rival governments against Chiang with Central plains war defeating and taking over.