The Peopling and Early Civilizations of Ancient America

Hurricane 2001 and the Discovery of Mayan Warfare

In the summer of $2001$ , a powerful hurricane swept through Central America, destroying homes and flooding villages along the Caribbean coasts of Belize and Guatemala.
At the archaeological site of Dos Pilas, a fallen tree revealed a block of stones inscribed with hieroglyphics.
These hieroglyphics described a brutal war between two powerful city-states in the region, a conflict that contributed to the decline of the Mayan civilization.
Mayan civilization, while tracing its origins to approximately $500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , was the latest in a series of human societies in the Western Hemisphere emerging as early as the third millennium $3000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .

The Peopling of the Americas

Original Migrations: * The first humans in the Western Hemisphere were long believed to be relatively recent arrivals (Lost Tribes of Israel, Phoenicians, or refugees from Atlantis). * Mid- $19\text{th}$ -century Darwinian theories proposed much earlier migrations across the Bering Strait via a land bridge connecting Asia and North America during the last ice age. * Current estimates suggest migration occurred between $10,000$ and $15,000$ years ago, followed by herds of bison and caribou. * Louis Leakey suggested hominids might have arrived as early as $100,000$ years ago, though this remains an outlier theory. * Discoveries at Cactus Hill in central Virginia show human habitation signs from $15,000$ years ago. * Alternative theories suggest maritime routes down the western coast or arrivals from Africa and the South Pacific.
Settlement Patterns: * Humans spread through North America and reached the southern tip of South America by roughly $11,000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ . * Early Americans were nomadic hunters and food gatherers.
The Rise of Agriculture: * Beans and squash seeds found at sites date back at least $10,000$ years, making American farming nearly as old as that in the Middle East. * The cultivation of maize (corn) began around $5000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ in the Tehuaca´n valley of central Mexico.

Early Mesoamerican Civilizations: The Olmecs and Zapotecs

The Olmecs ("People of the Land of Rubber"): * Emerged at the end of the second millennium $2000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ in the tropical lowlands of the Gulf of Mexico (south of Veracruz). * Characterized by intensive riverbank agriculture and stone craftsmanship. * Major sites: San Lorenzo and La Venta. La Venta feature a ceremonial precinct with a $30\text{-foot}\text{-high}$ earthen pyramid. * Notable for carving massive stone heads, some standing over $10\,\text{feet}$ high. * Devised an undeciphered hieroglyphic system and a ceremonial game played with rubber balls (sap from rubber trees) on a stone court. * Collapsed around the fourth century $400\,\text{B.C.E.}$ after extending influence from Mexico City to El Salvador.
The Zapotecs: * Flourished in the highlands at Monte Alba´n overlooking the Oaxaca valley starting in the middle of the first millennium $1000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ . * Population lived on mountain terraces at Danibaan ("Sacred Mountain"), estimated at $20,000$ . * Theocratic government ruled by an elite class of nobles and priests. * Temple sites located atop a $1,200\text{-foot}\text{-high}$ mountain. * Monte Alba´n was abandoned in the late eighth century $800\,\text{C.E.}$ for unknown reasons.

Teotihuaca´n: America’s First Metropolis

City Layout and Commerce: * Located $30\,\text{miles}$ northeast of Mexico City; arose in the third century $300\,\text{B.C.E.}$ and collapsed circa $800\,\text{C.E.}$ . * Dominated by the massive Pyramid of the Sun, which houses remains of sacrificial victims. * Large markets traded cacao, rubber, feathers, vegetables, and meat. * Pulque, a liquor from the agave plant, was used for religious ceremonies. * Obsidian mining was central to the economy (used for tools, mirrors, and sacrificial blades). * Residential areas consisted of one-story stucco apartment compounds (up to $35,000\,\text{square feet}$ , housing $100$ people) organized on a rectangular grid.
Decline and Agricultural Innovation: * Declined in the eighth century $800\,\text{C.E.}$ . Priests fled carrying stone images of local deities. * Subsequent farmers developed chinampas: swampy islands built into lakes with canals for irrigation and transport.

The Mayan Civilization

Political and Social Order: * Developed in Guatemala and the Yucata´n peninsula. Entered its classical phase by the end of the third century $300\,\text{C.E.}$ . * Monarchs, such as " $18\,\text{Rabbit}$ " at Copa´n, possessed immense power; his palace required $30,000$ person-days of labor. * Social strata: Monarchs > Aristocrats (landowners) > Middle Class (artisans/traders) > Farmers (millions). * Clear gender labor division: Men hunted and fought; women homebound, preparing cornmeal. Some noblewomen like the mother of King Pacal at Palenque ruled as the "power behind the throne."
Religion and Ritual: * Polytheistic; supreme god named Itzamna ("Lizard House"). * Human sacrifice, primarily by decapitation, was common. * Ball courts served religious functions; losing players were sacrificed. * The Jaguar god represented the forces of the night/evil.
Science and Writing: * Mayan Hieroglyphs: Mixed ideographic and phonetic symbols written in double columns. Scribes wrote on bark or deerskin (most burned by Spanish Bishop Diego de Landa). * Calendars: Elaborate system dating back to August $3114\,\text{B.C.E.}$ . The "Long Count" cycle ended in $2012\,\text{C.E.}$ . * Sophisticated knowledge of astronomy allowed for tracking the planet Venus and other celestial bodies for timing warfare.
The Mystery of Decline: * Classical cities like Copa´n, Palenque, and Tikal were abandoned by $870\,\text{C.E.}$ . * Causes likely include overcultivation, a long drought in the ninth and tenth centuries, and endemic warfare. * Post-Classical centers: Uxmal and Chiche´n Itza´ flourished later under Toltec influence (led by Kukulcan).

The Aztec Civilization

Rise and Governance: * The Mexica people migrated from legendary Aztla´n to the Valley of Mexico in the late $12\text{th}$ century. * Capital established at Tenochtitla´n on an island in Lake Texcoco. * Authoritarian state governed of a monarch who was a divine intermediary. Successors were chosen by a council of lords from the royal family. * Empire was a collection of semi-autonomous territories paying tribute.
Social and Economic Life: * Nobility were exclusively family descendants of the founding clan. * Commoners belonged to kinship groups called calpullis (approx. $1,000$ members), managing their own land, temples, and schools. * Slavery was not inherited; debt-ridden citizens could sell themselves and buy freedom later. * Markets were vast and compartmentalized; Bernal Dı´az described stalls for gold, slaves, skins (tiger, otter, deer), herbs, and even canoe-loads of human excrement (used for tanning and salt manufacture).
Religion and Cosmology: * Huitzilopochtli: Patron god and sun deity requiring human blood offerings to delay the world's destruction. * Quetzalcoatl: Feathered serpent representing creation and culture; promised to return from his homeland. * Belief in the " $5\text{th}$ Sun": The world had been destroyed four times prior and was fated to end again. * The Stone of the Fifth Sun: A $26\text{-ton}$ basaltic disk depicting Aztec cosmology.

South American Civilizations

The Caral and Chavı´n Cultures: * Caral ( $2500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ): Located inland in Peru; used cotton for fishnets and cultivated squash and beans. * Chavı´n Style ( $1000\text{--}200\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ): Known for complex stone temples and underground canals. * A solar observatory with $13$ stone towers was built north of Lima in $300\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .
The Moche and Chimor: * Moche ( $150\text{--}800\,\text{C.E.}$ ): Capital featured the Pyramid of the Moon ( $15\,\text{acres}$ , $100\,\text{feet}$ high). * Art centered on astronomy, constellations, and warfare. * Collapsed due to environmental disruption from El Nin˜o (flooding and drought). * Chimor ( $1100\text{--}1450\,\text{C.E.}$ ): Capital at Chan Chan relied on extensive irrigation; destroyed by earthquakes and floods.
The Inka Empire (Tahuantinsuyu): * Launched by Pachakuti in the $1440s$ ; capital at Cuzco constructed with precision stonework (no mortar). * Empire divided into "Four Quarters," then provinces of approx. $10,000$ people. * The Inka Road System: $24,800\,\text{miles}$ of highways with rest houses and fiber suspension bridges. * Communication: Trained runners carried messages $140\,\text{miles}$ per day. * Quipu: A system of knotted strings for numeric record-keeping (census, taxes). * Social: Men drafted into a $200,000\text{-man}$ army. Women served as "chosen virgins" (accla) in temples; violation of chastity resulted in being buried alive.

Stateless Societies of North America

Eastern Woodlands (Mississippian): * Shift to farming in the third millennium $3000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ . * Cahokia (near East St. Louis): Administrative capital with population over $20,000$ . Featured a burial mound over $98\,\text{feet}$ high. * Hopewell Culture (Ohio): Traded from Lake Superior to the Gulf of Mexico. * League of Iroquois: Formed by tribes in NY/PA to handle conflict.
The Anasazi ("Ancient Puebloans"): * Located in the Four Corners region (NM, AZ, CO, UT). * Built Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon: A walled city with three-story adobe communal houses and circular religious chambers called kivas. * Moved to Mesa Verde (Cliff Palace) with dwellings built into canyon walls for protection. * Abandoned sites in late $13\text{th}$ century due to drought and increased internecine warfare/cannibalism.

The Arawak and Amazonia

Arawak: Migrated from Orinoco River (Venezuela) to Caribbean islands. Cultivated manioc (yucca/tapioca), maize, and pineapples.
Amazonia: Recent evidence near Santarem suggests large agricultural societies existed despite nutrient-poor rainforest soil.

Questions & Discussion

Critical Thinking Question 1: In what ways were the early civilizations in the Americas similar to those in Part I, and in what ways were they unique? * Response Context Notes: Similarities include irrigated agriculture, long-distance trade, urbanization, classes, and writing. Uniqueness includes the absence of iron smelting, wheeled vehicles, and a lack of large domesticable mammals/mammalian beasts of burden.
Comparative Illustration Question: How would you compare the pyramids erected in the Western Hemisphere with similar structures in other parts of the world? What were their symbolic meanings to the builders? * Response Context Notes: American pyramids (e.g., Sun Pyramid at Teotihuaca´n) were often platforms for shrines and sacrifice, whereas Egyptian pyramids (Giza) were primarily tombs for monarchs. Both symbolized links between humans and deities.
Gender Roles Question (Huaman Poma): In what other traditional societies was textile making a woman’s work? Why do you think this was the case? * Response Context Notes: Textile making was common among women in Aztec, Inkan, and many Eurasian societies. It was often prioritized as domestic labor compatible with child-rearing.
Creation Myths Question (Popul Vuh): What similarities and differences do you see between this account of the beginning of the world and those of other ancient civilizations? * Response Context Notes: The Popul Vuh emphasizes silence/motionlessness before a creator group (Tepeu, Gucumatz, Heart of Heaven/Huracan) plans the creation of humans and nature through meditation, similar to some Mesopotamian or Egyptian themes of divine speech/thought leading to physical reality.

Guiding Questions

Apply the 5 characteristics of a civilization to the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations.
- Characteristics include:
  - Advanced cities:
  - Maya: Major cities such as Tikal, Copán, and Palenque with complex architecture and urban planning.
  - Aztec: Capital city Tenochtitlán, built on an island, with massive temples and a structured layout.
  - Inca: Cuzco, the capital, a center for administration and religion with a vast road system linking major cities.
- Specialized workers:
  - Maya: Social strata included monarchs, aristocrats, artisans, and farmers.
  - Aztec: Nobility and commoners, managing land and resources; specialized craftspeople and traders.
  - Inca: Laborers, skilled artisans, and a powerful ruling elite managing extensive resources.
- Complex institutions:
  - Maya: Theocratic government with priestly classes; polytheistic religion with elaborate rituals.
  - Aztec: Centralized monarchy; religious ceremonies involving human sacrifice to gods.
  - Inca: Bureaucracy organized into provinces; worship of the sun god Inti and state-run religion.
- Record keeping:
  - Maya: Hieroglyphic writing system; advanced calendars and astronomical records.
  - Aztec: Codices using pictographs to record tribute and events.
  - Inca: Quipu system to record information economically and administratively.
- Advanced technology:
  - Maya: Advanced knowledge of astronomy and mathematics; developed art and architecture.
  - Aztec: Complex engineering for agriculture, including chinampas (floating gardens).
  - Inca: Sophisticated road systems, construction techniques using massive stone blocks without mortar.
Explain how the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations differ.
- Geographical Location:
  - Maya: Central America (Guatemala, Belize, Yucatán Peninsula).
  - Aztec: Valley of Mexico.
  - Inca: Western South America (Peru).
- Political Structure:
  - Maya: City-states with individual rulers.
  - Aztec: Centralized empire under an emperor.
  - Inca: Strongly centralized government with defined administrative divisions.
- Religious Practices:
  - Maya: Complex pantheon with emphasis on calendar rituals.
  - Aztec: Focus on human sacrifice to appease gods.
  - Inca: Worship of sun god Inti, less emphasis on human sacrifice but still a strong sense of divinity.
Discuss the legacy of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations.
- Cultural Contributions:
  - Maya: Writing systems and advancements in mathematics and astronomy.
  - Aztec: Influence on language, art, and architecture in modern Mexico.
  - Inca: Engineering feats, extensive road networks, and agricultural systems.
- Historical Impact:
  - Maya: Contributions to understanding ancient Mesoamerican culture.
  - Aztec: Encounter with Spanish conquest leading to significant changes in society and culture.
  - Inca: Shaping of regional politics and economy in South America.
- Enduring Influence:
  - The Maya, Aztec, and Inca still influence contemporary indigenous cultures, languages, and traditions.
Be able to explain the role of pyramids for the Aztecs and Maya.
- Maya Pyramids: Used as monumental architecture for temples and sacrifices; exemplified their connection between the heavens and the earth.
- Aztec Pyramids: Served as religious centers, often featuring altars for sacrifices; central to urban layouts and public events.
- Both civilizations utilized pyramids to symbolize their power, religious devotion, and urban planning strategies.

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