Comprehensive Study Notes on Forensic Sciences: Personal Identification, Photography, Chemistry & Toxicology, Questioned Documents, and Polygraphy

Personal Identification Techniques

• Definition of Identification:

  • Determination of the individuality of a person or thing.
  • Recognizing characteristics of persons to differentiate them from others.

• Methods of Personal Identification:

  • Layman Identification: Based on simple means without scientific methods or special training (e.g., clothing, body ornaments, general height/weight, hair color).
  • Scientific Identification: Made by trained experts using specialized knowledge, skill, observation, comparison, and exclusion (e.g., Dactyloscopy, Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Odontology, DNA Profiling).

• Laws & Rules Governing Personal Identification:

  • Law of Multiplicity of Evidence in Identification: The greater the number of points of similarities and dissimilarities between two persons compared, the greater the probability for the conclusion to be correct.
  • Value of points of identification varies in formulating a conclusion.
  • The longer the interval between death and examination of remains, the greater the need for experts in establishing identity.
  • In cases of mass disasters, immediate action is required because biological evidence is highly perishable.
  • There is no rigid rule to be observed in the procedure of personal identification.

• Bases of Human Identification:

  • By Comparison: Comparing criteria recovered during investigation with records in file (e.g., ante-mortem records vs. post-mortem findings).
  • By Exclusion: Process of elimination when identifying multiple individuals.

• Biometric Identification Modalities:

  • Fingerprint Identification: Analysis of friction ridge patterns.
  • Iris Recognition: Analyzing patterns of the eye iris.
  • Facial Recognition: Mapping facial feature ratios and geometry.
  • Voice Recognition: Acoustic and phonetic speech pattern analysis.

• Gait Analysis (Manner of Walking):

  • Ataxic Gait: Foot is raised high, thrown forward, and brought down suddenly; seen in tabes dorsalis.
  • Cerebellar Gait: Staggering movement seen in cerebellar diseases.
  • Cow's Gait: Swaying movement due to knock-knees.
  • Paretic Gait: Steps are short, feet dragged, and legs held widely apart.
  • Spastic Gait: Legs held together, move stiffly, and toes dragged.
  • Festinating Gait: Involuntary movement in short, accelerating steps.
  • Frog Gait: Hopping gait resulting from infantile paralysis.
  • Waddling Gait: Exaggerated lateral trunk movement similar to a duck.

• Points of Identification for Living Persons:

  • Easily Changed: Hair/beard/mustache growth, clothing, frequent place of visit, profession, body ornamentations, tattoos, scarification.
  • Not Easily Changed: Mental memory, speech, gait, mannerisms (stereotyped habits), complexion, eye changes, left- or right-handedness.
  • Skin Layers: Temporary outer layer is the Epidermis; permanent inner layer is the Dermis. Tattoos and permanent scars must penetrate into the dermis.

• Facial Expressions (Facies) Caused by Disease/Racial Influence:

  • Hippocratic Facies: Pinched nose, hollow temples, sunken eyes, cold ears, relaxed lips, livid skin; indicative of approaching death.
  • Mongolian Facies: Almond eyes, pale complexion, prominent cheekbones.
  • 
  • Facies Leonine: Deeply furrowed, lion-like face observed in leprosy, elephantiasis, and leontiasis ossia.
  • 
  • Myxedemic Facies: Pale face, edematous non-pitting swelling, dry coarse sparse hair, thin lateral eyebrows, periorbital edema, dull intellect, slow monotonous speech, muscular weakness, and tremor.

• Forensic Anthropology & Forensic Odontology:

  • Forensic Anthropology: Examination of skeletal remains to recover human remains, establish identity, interpret trauma, and estimate time since death.
  • Forensic Odontology: Application of dental science to legal investigations (identifying offenders via bite marks or victims via ante-mortem dental records). Tooth enamel is the hardest substance in the human body.
  • Presidential Decree 1575 (PD 1575): Requires dental practitioners to keep records of their patients for at least $10\text{ years}$ from the last entry.
  • Permanent Teeth Eruption Timeline:
    • $6 - 7\text{ years}$: Lower/Upper First Molars, Lower Central Incisors
    • $7 - 8\text{ years}$: Upper Central Incisors, Lower Lateral Incisors
    • $8 - 9\text{ years}$: Upper Lateral Incisors
    • $9 - 10\text{ years}$: Lower Canines
    • $10 - 11\text{ years}$: Upper First Premolars
    • $10 - 12\text{ years}$: Lower First Premolar, Upper Second Premolar
    • $11 - 12\text{ years}$: Lower Second Premolar, Upper Canine
    • $11 - 13\text{ years}$: Lower Second Molar
    • $12 - 13\text{ years}$: Upper Second Molar
    • $17 - 21\text{ years}$: Third Molars (Wisdom Teeth)

• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) Profiling:

  • Determines unique DNA characteristics (DNA fingerprinting).
  • Any two random humans share approximately $99.9\%$ of their DNA. The $0.1\%$ variation accounts for all individual differences (equals approximately $3\times 10^{6}$ base differences).
  • DNA Similarity Across Relatives:
    • Identical Twins: $100\%$
    • Parent & Child: $50\%$
    • Full Siblings: $50\%$ average
    • Grandparent & Grandchild: $25\%$
    • First Cousins: $12.5\%$
  • Short Tandem Repeats (STR): Analysis measuring repeating sequences ($2 - 7\text{ base pairs}$) at specific loci on chromosomes. Utilizes Restriction Endonucleases and Gel Electrophoresis on agarose.
  • Paternity testing relies on the principle that a child inherits half of their chromosomes from each biological parent.

• Determination of Sex & Age:

  • Sex Determination:
    • Tests: Social, Genital, Gonadal, Chromosomal ($23\text{ pairs}$; Male = $XY$, Female = $XX$, Superfemale = $XXX$).
    • Conclusive Evidence: Presence of ovaries in females and testes in males.
  • Age Determination Indicators:
    • Pubic Hair: $13\text{ years}$ (Female), $14\text{ years}$ (Male).
    • Mustache & Beard: $16 - 18\text{ years}$ (Male).
    • Breast Changes: $13 - 14\text{ years}$ (Female).
    • Voice Development: $16 - 18\text{ years}$ (Both).
    • Hair Color Changes: Graying at $40\text{ years}$, pubic hair graying at $50\text{ years}$.
    • Menstruation: $12\text{ years}$ (Warm countries).

• Light as a Factor in Distance Recognition:

  • Clearest Moonlight: Maximum distance of $16 - 17\text{ yards}$.
  • Starlight: Maximum distance of $10 - 13\text{ yards}$.
  • Broad Daylight: Unknown persons at $>100\text{ yards}$; near strangers at $25\text{ yards}$.

• History & Principles of Dactyloscopy:

  • Dactylography: Scientific study of fingerprints as a means of identification.
  • Dactyloscopy: Practical application of fingerprint science (classification and identification).
  • Dactylomancy: Fingerprint study for personality interpretation.
  • Dermatoglyphics: Study of skin patterns (Derma = skin, Glype = carve).
  • Leading Judicial Cases:
    • People vs. Jennings (1911, USA): First judicial recognition of fingerprint evidence for conviction.
    • People vs. Medina (1933, Philippines): First conviction based on fingerprint evidence in Philippine jurisprudence.
  • Three Dogmatic Principles of Fingerprints:
    1. Individuality / Variation / Uniqueness: No two persons have identical fingerprints. Sir Francis Galton (1892) calculated the probability of two identical fingerprints as $1 : 64\times 10^{9}$.
    2. Constancy / Persistency / Permanency / Immutability: Friction ridges remain unchanging from birth until post-mortem decomposition ("From Womb to Tomb"). Ridges form during the $3\text{rd} - 4\text{th}\text{ month}$ of fetal life and complete by the $5\text{th} - 6\text{th}\text{ month}$.
    3. Infallibility: Fingerprints cannot be forged; universally accepted as a reliable mean of identification.
  • Historical Ridge Destruction Attempts:
    • John Dillinger: Tried erasing prints with acid; prints regenerated.
    • Robert Roscoe James Pitts ("Man without fingerprints"): Surgically removed tip friction skin and grafted chest skin; identified via remaining ridge characteristics and palm prints.

• Anatomy of Friction Skin & Ridge Characteristics:

  • Skeletal Finger (Phalanges): Basal/Proximal (nearest palm), Middle/Intermediate, Terminal/Distal (tip bone covered with friction skin).
  • Friction Skin Components: Elevated Ridges (hills, appear black in inked prints) and depressed Furrows (valleys, white lines).
  • Glands: Eccrine (soles and palms only), Apocrine (pubic/mammary/anal), Sebaceous (forehead, chest, back - secretes oils).
  • Dermal Papillae: Irregular pegs protruding into the epidermis. Permanent scarring (Cicatriz) occurs if dermal damage exceeds $1\text{ mm}$ depth.
  • Congenital Anomalies:
    • Polydactyl: Extra fingers.
    • Macrodactyl: Enlarged fingers.
    • Brachydactyl: Abnormally short fingers.
    • Ectodactyl: Missing fingers at birth.
    • Syndactyl: Webbed fingers / side fusion.
    • 
    • Ankylosis: Inability to bend finger joints.
    • Orthodactyl: Inability to stretch fingers.

• Minutiae / Galton Details:

  • Basic Types: Bifurcation, Ending Ridge, Ridge Dot (Island).
  • Other Details: Converging, Diverging, Enclosure (Lake), Trifurcation, Opposed Bifurcation, Spur (Hook), Puckering Ridge, Appendage (Abutment), Crossover (Bridge), Fragment ($<3\text{ mm}$), Envelope, Incipient/Nascent ridges (thin/underdeveloped, not counted), Dissociated ridges (patchy, not counted).
  • 

• Focal Points & Pattern Types:

  • Pattern Area: Part of loop or whorl enclosed by typelines containing delta and core.
  • Typelines: Innermost parallel ridges that diverge and surround the pattern area.
  • Delta (Outer Terminus): First point on ridge formation at or directly in front of typeline divergence.
  • Core (Inner Terminus): Focal point in the center of the innermost recurve.
  • General Pattern Families:
    • Loops ($60\%$ total frequency): Ulnar Loop ($94\%$ of loops), Radial Loop ($6\%$ of loops). Requirements: Delta, Core, Recurving ridge between delta/core, Ridge count $\ge 1$.
    • Whorls ($35\%$ total frequency): Plain Whorl ($71\%$), Central Pocket Loop Whorl ($13\%$), Double Loop Whorl ($13\%$), Accidental Whorl ($3\%$).
    • Arches ($5\%$ total frequency): Plain Arch ($60\%$ of arches), Tented Arch ($40\%$ of arches - Angle, Upthrust, Incomplete Loop types).
  • 

• Henry-FBI Fingerprint Classification Formula:

  • Order of Classification Divisions: Key - Major - Primary - Secondary - Sub-Secondary - Final.
  • Primary Classification:
    • Assign numerical values only to Whorl patterns ($W, C, D, X$):
      • Fingers 1 & 2 (Right Thumb, Right Index) = $16$
      • Fingers 3 & 4 (Right Middle, Right Ring) = $8$
      • Fingers 5 & 6 (Right Little, Left Thumb) = $4$
      • Fingers 7 & 8 (Left Index, Left Middle) = $2$
      • Fingers 9 & 10 (Left Ring, Left Little) = $1$
      • Arches ($A, T$) and Loops ($R, U$) = $0$
    • 
    • Formula: $\frac{\text{Sum of Even Finger Values} + 1}{\text{Sum of Odd Finger Values} + 1}$
  • Secondary Classification:
    • Capital Letter Series ($A, T, R, U, W, C, D, X$) for Index Fingers (Right = numerator, Left = denominator).
    • Small Letter Series ($a, t, r$) for Thumbs, Middle, Ring, Little fingers placed around index letters.
  • Sub-Secondary Classification:
    • Examines Index, Middle, and Ring fingers.
    • Loops (Ridge Counting):
      • Index: Inner ($I$) = $1 - 9$; Outer ($O$) = $\ge 10$
      • Middle: Inner ($I$) = $1 - 10$; Outer ($O$) = $\ge 11$
      • Ring: Inner ($I$) = $1 - 13$; Outer ($O$) = $\ge 14$
    • Whorls (Ridge Tracing): Inner ($I$) = $\ge 3$ ridges inside/above right delta; Outer ($O$) = $\ge 3$ ridges outside/below right delta; Meeting ($M$) = $0, 1, 2$ ridges difference.
    • Arches: Represented by a dash ($-$).
  • Major Classification:
    • Examines Thumbs (Right = numerator, Left = denominator).
    • If Left Thumb Loop count $\le 16$: Small ($S$) = $1 - 11$; Medium ($M$) = $12 - 16$; Large ($L$) = $\ge 17$.
    • If Left Thumb Loop count $\ge 17$: Right Thumb scale shifts $\rightarrow$ $S = 1 - 17$, $M = 18 - 22$, $L = 23+$.
    • Whorls: Evaluated via Ridge Tracing ($I, M, O$).
  • Final Classification:
    • Ridge count of loops or whorls on Little Fingers (Finger 5 = numerator, Finger 10 = denominator).
  • Key Classification:
    • Ridge count of the first Loop appearing in a set of prints, excluding the little fingers.
  • Amputations & FMB (Finger Missing at Birth):
    • Single amputation: Classify identical to opposite finger.
    • Both opposite fingers amputated: Given Whorl classification with Meeting ($M$) tracing.
    • All 10 fingers missing: $\frac{M\ 32\ W\ MMM}{M\ 32\ W\ MMM}$.

• Latent Print Processing & Examination:

  • Types of Chance Prints: Patent/Visible (ink, blood, grease), Plastic/Semi-visible (3D soft impressions in wax, soap), Latent/Invisible (sweat/oil deposits).
  • Development Methods: Dusting/Powder, Rolling, Fuming (Iodine/Ammonia), Silver Nitrate ($5\%$ solution), Ninhydrin, Laser.
  • ACE-V Methodology: Analysis, Comparison, Evaluation, Verification.

Forensic Photography

• Etymology & Definitions:

  • Derived from Greek: Phos ("light") and Graphos ("write") $\rightarrow$ "Write with light".
  • Police Photography: Art or science of studying photography principles, preparing photographic evidence, and applying it to police work.
  • Forensic Photography: Art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory analysis and court trials.
  • Utmost Use: Record purposes.
  • First Police Application: Personal Identification introduced by Alphonse Bertillon (Anthropometry System mugshots).

• Primary Functions & Crime Scene Camera Views:

  • 4 Functions: Identification; Discovering, recording, and preserving; Presenting court exhibits; Training and public relations.
  • Camera Views:
    1. General / Long-Range View: Overall coverage showing location, direction, and surroundings.
    2. Medium View: Divides scene into sections; shows 4 angles, entrances, exits, and nature of the crime.
    3. Close-Up View: Individual photographs of physical evidence detailing specific characteristics.
    4. Extreme Close-Up View: High-magnification photographs (Photomacrography or Photomicrography) showing minute details/damage.

• Essentials & Physics of Light:

  • Speed of Light: Approximately $186,000\text{ miles/sec}$ ($186,282\text{ miles/sec}$ or $299,792,458\text{ m/s}$ in a vacuum).
  • Wavelength ($\lambda$): Measured in Angstroms, Nanometers ($nm$), or Millimicrons ($\mu$). Measured crest-to-crest.
  • Light Theories:
    • Wave Theory (Christian Huygens): Light travels in continuous wave motions.
    • Corpuscular Theory (Isaac Newton): Light consists of tiny emitted particles (electrons).
    • Electromagnetic Theory (Maxwell & Hertz): Light is electromagnetic radiation waves.
    • Quantum Theory (Albert Einstein): Light energy packet emissions (photons).

• Electromagnetic Spectrum Divisions:

  • Gamma & Cosmic Rays: Shortest wavelengths, highest photon energy.
  • X-Ray: $0.01 - 30\text{ nm}$; discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen; shadow photography principle.
  • Ultra-Violet (UV) Rays: $30 - 400\text{ nm}$; "Black Light"; used for invisible ink, altered documents, bodily fluids, multi-colored background fingerprints.
  • Visible Light: $400 - 700\text{ nm}$ ($400\text{ nm}$ Violet to $700\text{ nm}$ Red).
  • Infra-Red (IR) Rays: $700 - 1000\text{ nm}$; heat rays; used for obliterated/charred documents, gunshot residue on dark cloth, black-out photography.

• Color Theory of Light:

  • Additive Primary Colors: Blue, Green, Red. Additive Combinations: Red + Green = Yellow; Red + Blue = Magenta; Green + Blue = Cyan; Red + Green + Blue = White.
  • Subtractive Primaries: Cyan, Yellow, Magenta. Subtractive Combinations: White - Blue = Yellow; White - Red = Cyan; White - Green = Magenta.

• Light Interactions & Mediums:

  • Mediums: Transparent (transmits $\ge 90\%$ light), Translucent (transmits $\le 50\%$ light), Opaque (absorbs/reflects light).
  • Interactions (RAT): Reflected, Absorbed, Transmitted.
  • Bending Modes:
    • Reflection: Rebounding of light rays.
    • Refraction: Bending of light passing from one medium to another.
    • Diffraction: Bending of light rays striking the edge of an opaque barrier.

• Sources of Light:

  • Natural Sunlight: Classified by intensity: Bright Sunlight (deep uniform shadows), Hazy Sunlight (bluish transparent shadows), Dull Sunlight (no shadows, clouds cover sun), Cloudy Bright, Cloudy Dull.
  • Artificial Lights:
    • Continuous: Photoflood lamps ($500\text{ W}$), Fluorescent, Incandescent, IR/UV lamps.
    • Short Duration: Flashbulbs (single-use chemical combustion), Electronic Flash ($1/300 - 1/5000\text{ sec}$ speed; Strobe light, Slave unit, Ring light [encircles lens], On-camera, Off-camera, Fill-in, Bounce, Umbrella).

• Sensitized Materials & Chemical Processing:

  • Film Structure:
    • Black & White Film: Scratch-resistant top coating, Emulsion layer (Silver Halides suspended in Gelatin), Film Base (cellulose acetate), Antihalation Backing (black dye absorbing penetrating light to prevent halo double images).
    • Color Film: 3 Emulsion layers (Top: Blue-sensitive; Yellow Filter/Carey Lea silver; Middle: Green-sensitive/Orthochromatic; Bottom: Red-sensitive/Panchromatic), Base, Antihalation backing.
  • Film Speed Systems:
    • ASA: Arithmetic scale ($400\text{ ASA}$ is $4\times$ faster than $100\text{ ASA}$).
    • DIN: Logarithmic scale ($+3^{\circ}\text{ DIN}$ doubles sensitivity).
    • ISO: Combined scale (e.g., ISO $100/21^{\circ}$, ISO $400/27^{\circ}$).
  • Photographic Paper Layers: Emulsion, Baryta layer (increases reflectivity), Base (Lightweight, Single Weight, Double Weight).
  • Paper Grades (Velox): No. 0 (extremely high contrast negatives), No. 1 (high contrast), No. 2 (normal), No. 3 (weak contrast), No. 4 (thin/weak negatives), No. 5 (extremely flat negatives).
  • Chemical Processing Sequence:
    1. Development: Converts exposed silver halides to metallic silver.
       • Developers: D-76 (films), Dektol (papers).
       • Components: Hydroquinone & Elon (reducers), Sodium Sulphite (preservative), Sodium Carbonate (accelerator), Potassium Bromide (restrainer/antifoggent).
    2. Stop-Bath: Halts development (Water + $28\%$ Acetic Acid).
    3. Fixing: Removes unexposed silver halides to make image permanent.
       • Components: Sodium Thiosulfate / Hypo (dissolving agent), Acetic/Boric Acid (neutralizer), Sodium Sulphate (preservative), Potassium Alum (hardener).
    4. Washing & Drying: Removes residual chemicals.

• Camera Elements & Optics:

  • Essential Parts: Light-tight box, Lens, Shutter, Film/Sensor holder, Viewfinder, Diaphragm/Aperture.
  • Lens Types:
    • Convex / Converging / Positive: Thick center, converges light; corrects hypermetropia (farsightedness).
    • Concave / Diverging / Negative: Thin center, diverges light; corrects myopia (nearsightedness).
  • Focal Length Classification:
    • Wide-Angle: Focal length $<$ diagonal of sensor/film; wide area coverage.
    • Normal Lens: Focal length $\approx$ diagonal of sensor/film; matches human eye view.
    • Telephoto Lens: Focal length $> 2\times$ diagonal of sensor/film; narrow view, magnifies distant objects.
    • Zoom Lens: Variable focal length.
  • Lens Aberrations / Defects:
    • Spherical Aberration: Peripheral light rays focus closer to lens than central rays.
    • Coma: Off-axis point light sources appear comet-shaped (Positive = tail pointing toward axis; Negative = away).
    • Curvature of Field (Petzval): Plane image projected onto a curved focal plane.
    • Distortion: Shape defect (Barrel distortion in wide-angle lenses; Pincushion distortion in telephoto lenses).
    • Chromatic Aberration: Dispersion causing different wavelengths/colors to focus at different points.
    • Astigmatism: Inability to focus horizontal and vertical lines simultaneously.
  • Lens Correction Classifications:
    • Meniscus: Uncorrected lens.
    • Achromatic: Corrects chromatic and spherical aberrations.
    • Rapid Rectilinear: Corrects distortion.
    • Anastigmat: Corrects spherical aberration, coma, and astigmatism.
    • Apochromat: Corrects chromatic aberration and astigmatism across three spectral colors.

• Exposure Variables:

  • Shutter Speed: Regulates time exposure ($1/1, 1/2, 1/4, \dots, 1/1000\text{ sec}$; Bulb [$B$], Time [$T$]).
  • Aperture / $f$-number: Ratio of focal length to effective lens aperture diameter ($f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22$). Smaller $f$-number = larger aperture opening = greater light volume.
  • Depth of Field (DOF): Distance between nearest and farthest objects in sharp focus. Increased by smaller aperture (larger $f$-number), shorter focal length, or greater subject distance.

• Admissibility of Photographic Evidence:

  • Best Evidence Rule: Photograph is a secondary representation, not a legal replacement for the physical object itself unless the physical evidence cannot be brought to court (e.g., roads, healing wounds).
  • Admissibility Requirements: Faithful representation (accurate likeness), Relevance, Materiality, Competency, Non-inflammatory/unbiased.

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

• Definitions & Scope:

  • Forensic Chemistry: Application of chemical principles and theories in solving legal problems.
  • Republic Act No. 754 (RA 754): The Chemistry Law enacted June 18, 1952.
  • Golden Rules in Forensic Chemistry:
    1. Go slowly (take required time).
    2. Be thorough (careful observation).
    3. Take notes (utilize logbooks, photos).
    4. Consult others (review similar cases).
    5. Use imagination.
    6. Avoid complicated theories (explain in layman terms).

• Historical Pioneers:

  • Dr. Edmond Locard: Father of modern forensics; established 1st crime lab in Lyon, France (1910). Formulated Locard's Exchange Principle: "Every contact leaves a trace" / "Whenever two objects come into contact, there is a transfer of material."
  • Mathieu Orfila: Father of Modern Forensic Toxicology. Used the Marsh Test to detect arsenic in the body of Charles LaFarge, convicting Marie LaFarge.

• Evidence Collection & Chain of Custody:

  • Liquid Items: Transported in leak-proof, non-breakable containers.
  • Arson Evidence: Air-tight metal canisters.
  • Dry Powders: Plastic bags.
  • Moist / Wet Evidence: Packaged temporarily in plastic ($<2\text{ hours}$) then air-dried to prevent mold.
  • Chain of Custody (Section 21, RA 9165): Documented unbroken record of all individuals holding custody of evidence.
    • Sequence: Crime Scene $\rightarrow$ Evidence $\rightarrow$ Evidence Collector $ ightarrow$ Forensic Examiner $ ightarrow$ Evidence Custodian $ ightarrow$ Court Presentation.

• Dangerous Drugs (RA 9165 - Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002):

  • Classifications by Effect:
    • Stimulants (Uppers): Amphetamines, Caffeine, Nicotine, Methamphetamine Hydrochloride (Shabu, "Poor man's cocaine" - white odorless crystalline powder with a bitter taste).
    • Depressants (Downers): Tranquilizers, Alcohol (Ethanol), Sedatives/Hypnotics, Inhalants (volatile solvents/aerosols).
    • Hallucinogens (Psychedelics):
      • Marijuana (Cannabis sativa / Indian Hemp): Active component THC. Hashish is concentrated resin $8 - 10\times$ stronger than commercial marijuana.
      • LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide): "Acid"; discovered by Dr. Albert Hofmann and Dr. Arthur Stoll; extremely potent.
      • Ecstasy / Molly (MDMA - Methylenedioxymethamphetamine): Alters mood and perception; lasts $3 - 6\text{ hours}$.
  • Routes of Administration: Oral, Injection (Subcutaneous / "skin popping", Intramuscular, Intravenous / IV - most rapid/efficient), Snorting, Inhalation, Buccal, Suppositories, Topical, Iontophoresis (electric current).
  • Screening / Field Color Tests:
    • Opium $\rightarrow$ Marquis Test $\rightarrow$ Purple / Violet
    • Heroin $\rightarrow$ Nitric Acid Test $\rightarrow$ Yellow-Green
    • Morphine $\rightarrow$ Nitric Acid Test $\rightarrow$ Red-Orange
    • Cocaine $\rightarrow$ Cobalt Thiocyanate Test $\rightarrow$ Blue
    • Barbiturates $\rightarrow$ Dille-Kopanyi / Zwikker Test $\rightarrow$ Violet / Blue
    • Amphetamines / Shabu $\rightarrow$ Marquis Test $\rightarrow$ Red / Orange-Brown; Simon's Test $\rightarrow$ Purple
    • LSD $\rightarrow$ PABA / Van Urk Test $\rightarrow$ Purple
    • Marijuana $\rightarrow$ Duquenois-Levine (KN) Test $\rightarrow$ Red Bottom Layer
  • Confirmatory Tests: Gas Chromatography (GC), Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Mass Spectrometry, Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR).

• Blood & Serology:

  • Composition: Total volume $\approx 5.68\text{ L}$ ($6\text{ quarts}$). Normal pH = $7.35 - 7.45$.
    • Formed Elements ($45\%$):
      • RBC (Erythrocytes): $4.2 - 6.1\times 10^{6}/\mu L$; contains hemoglobin to carry oxygen; non-nucleated biconcave discs in mammals.
      • WBC (Leukocytes): $4,000 - 11,000/\mu L$; bodily defense.
      • Platelets (Thrombocytes): Clotting function.
    • Plasma ($55\%$): $90\%$ water, $10\%$ solids (proteins: Albumins [most plentiful], Globulins [transports fats, antibodies], Fibrinogen [clotting]). Serum is yellow liquid expressed after blood clots.
  • Preservation: Sodium fluoride ($1\text{ week}$ room temp, indefinitely at $40 - 50^{\circ}\text{C}$ refrigeration).
  • Preliminary Color Tests for Blood:
    • Benzidine / Adler Test: Reagent: Benzidine + Glacial Acetic Acid + $3\%$ $H_2O_2$. Positive: Intense Blue. Sensitivity: $1 : 300,000$.
    • Phenolphthalein / Kastle-Meyer Test: Positive: Deep Pink / Permanganate. Sensitivity: $1 : 80,000,000$.
    • Guaiacum / Van Deen Test: Positive: Blue. Sensitivity: $1 : 50,000$.
    • Leucomalachite Green Test: Positive: Peacock Blue / Green.
    • Luminol Test: Produces Luminescence/light in dark; sensitivity $1 : 10,000\times$; destroys blood factors for further typing.
  • Confirmatory Microcrystalline Tests:
    • Takayama / Hemochromogen Test: Reagent: Pyridine + Blood $\rightarrow$ Salmon-pink crystals.
    • Teichmann / Hemin Test: Reagent: Glacial Acetic Acid + NaCl $ ightarrow$ Dark brownish crystals.
    • Acetone-Haemin (Wagenhaar) Test: Acetone + Oxalic/Acetic acid $ ightarrow$ Dark dichroic acicular crystals.
  • Biological & Grouping Tests:
    • Precipitin Test: Determines human vs. non-human animal origin (forms white cloudy ring at contact interface).
    • ABO Blood Grouping: Karl Landsteiner system. Antigens/Agglutinogens ($A, B$) on RBCs; Antibodies/Agglutinins (Anti-$A$, Anti-$B$) in serum. Universal donor = Group O; Universal recipient = Group AB.

• Bloodstain Pattern Analysis (BSPA):

  • Passive Stains: Gravity action (Drips, Drops, Pools).
  • Transfer Stains: Contact wipes, swipes, smears.
  • Impact / Spatter Stains: Gunshot spatter (fine mist forward, larger backspatter), Cast-off (arc trajectory), Arterial spray (pulsating spurts), Expirated spatter (mixed with air/mucus).

• Semen & Sex Offense Examination:

  • Composition: $2.5 - 5.0\text{ mL}$ per ejaculation; contains $60 - 100\times 10^{6}\text{ spermatozoa/mL}$. Sperm length = $50 - 55\mu\text{m}$.
  • Conditions: Aspermia (absence of sperm), Oligospermia (low sperm count).
  • Tests:
    • Physical: UV Light $ ightarrow$ Bluish fluorescence.
    • Florence Test: Reagent: Iodine + Potassium Iodide $ ightarrow$ Dark brown rosette/rhombic crystals (tests for choline).
    • Barberio's Test: Reagent: Picric Acid $ ightarrow$ Yellow needle-shaped crystals (tests for spermine).
    • Acid Phosphatase Test: Citrate buffer + Sodium alpha-naphthanil phosphate + Diazonium salt $ ightarrow$ Deep Purple color (conclusive).
    • Microscopic Test: Verifies complete spermatozoa.

• Gunpowder, Wound Ballistics, & Explosives:

  • Powder Types: Black Powder ($75\%$ Potassium Nitrate, $10\%$ Sulfur, $15\%$ Charcoal); Smokeless Powder (Single Base: Nitrocellulose; Double Base: Nitrocellulose + Nitroglycerin; Triple Base: + Nitroguanidine).
  • Gunshot Wounds (GSW):
    • Contact: Muzzle pressed against body.
    • Close Discharge ($2\text{ in} - 2\text{ ft}$): Smudging ($2 - 8\text{ in}$, soot deposit) and Tattooing (up to $36\text{ in}$, peppered unburned powder granules).
    • Distance Discharge: $> 2 - 3\text{ ft}$.
    • Entrance vs. Exit Wounds: Entrance wounds are smaller than missile, inverted edges, possess contusion collar; Exit wounds are larger, everted edges, irregular shape.
  • Nitrate Detection: Paraffin Test / Diphenylamine (DPA) Test / Teodoro Gonzalez Test $ ightarrow$ Blue specks.
  • Explosives: Low/Propellants (Black/smokeless powder), Primary/Initiators (Mercury fulminate, Lead azide), High Explosives (TNT, Dynamite, Nitroglycerin, RDX).

• Hair, Textile Fibers, & Glass:

  • Hair Anatomy: Root, Shaft, Tip. Shaft layers: Cuticle (outer overlapping scales), Cortex (thick intermediate layer, contains melanin), Medulla (central canal).
  • Medullary Index (M.I.): $\frac{\text{Diameter of Medulla}}{\text{Diameter of Hair Shaft}}$. Human M.I. $< 0.5$ (typically $< 0.33$); Animal M.I. $> 0.5$.
  • Fibers: Natural (Vegetable: Cotton, Flax, Hemp, Abaca, Jute, Linen; Animal: Wool, Silk) vs. Synthetic. Differentiated via Ignition Test, Nitric acid, Picric acid, Millon's reagent, and $10\%$ NaOH.
  • Glass Fractures:
    • Radial Fractures: Radiate outward like spokes from impact point; start on the rear/opposite surface.
    • Concentric Fractures: Circular arcs connecting radial cracks; start on the front/struck surface.
    • 3Rs Rule: Radial cracks form Right angles on the Rear side of impact.
    • RFC Rule: Radial cracks form Front angles on Concentric cracks.

• Casting, Toolmarks, Metallurgy, & Toxicology:

  • Plaster of Paris Casting: Add table salt to hasten setting; add borax to retard; add sodium carbonate to harden.
  • Tool Impressions: Compression marks (single impact) vs. Friction/Striation marks (scratches/sliding).
  • Metallurgy: Cast coins (molded) vs. Struck coins (stamped with steel dies). Serial numbers restored via chemical Etching Fluid.
  • Toxicology & Poisons:
    • Poisons: Arsenic (vomiting, bloody diarrhea), Cyanide (internal asphyxiation), Carbon Monoxide ("silent killer"), Hydrogen Sulfide (rotten egg odor).
    • Antidotes: Mechanical (coats/absorbs), Chemical (neutralizes), Physiological (antagonists).
    • Posology (Dosage): Safe, Toxic, Lethal, Minimum, Maximum doses.

Questioned Document Examination

• Definitions & Classifications:

  • Document: Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs conveying a message or meaning.
  • Legal Sense: Any written statement establishing a right or extinguishing an obligation.
  • Supreme Court Rulings (Non-Documents): Draft municipal payroll unapproved (People vs. Camacho); Blank unexecuted official forms (People vs. Santiago); Merchandise pamphlets/books (People vs. Agnis).
  • 4 Kinds of Documents: Public, Official, Private, Commercial.
  • Elements: Author, Addressee, Date/Age, Writing material, Writing instrument, Content.

• Writing Materials & Inks:

  • Materials: Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus plant), Parchment (animal skins: sheep/goats, developed in Pergamum), Vellum (fine calfskin).
  • Ink History & Types:
    • Indian Ink: Oldest ink; amorphous carbon / lamp-black + hide glue.
    • Logwood Inks: Obsolete; aqueous extract of logwood + potassium chromate.
    • Iron Gallotannate Inks: Used for over 1000 years; fermented gall nuts + iron salts $\rightarrow$ black ferric tannate.
    • Alkaline Inks: Quick drying; pH $9 - 11$.
    • Ink Analysis: U.S. Secret Service library contains $>6,000$ ink formulas; analyzed via Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and spectrophotometry.
  • Writing Instruments History:
    • Reed Pens: Frayed ends; used $2000\text{ BC}$ in Near East.
    • Quill Pens: Bird wing feathers (goose, swan, crow, turkey); referenced $6\text{th century AD}$ by St. Isidore of Seville.
    • Steel Point Pens: Patented 1803 by Bryan Donkin.
    • Fountain Pen: Patented 1884 by Lewis Waterman (capillary action feed).
    • Ballpoint Pen: Patented 1888 by John Loud.
    • Fiber Tip Pen: Invented 1962 by Yukio Horie (Japan).

• Questioned vs. Disputed Documents:

  • Questioned Document: Any document whose authenticity, origin, or contents are under suspicion or in doubt.
  • Disputed Document: Document that is the subject of an active legal contest or argument. (All disputed documents are questioned documents, but not all questioned documents are disputed).
  • Anachronism: An error in chronology; matching paper, ink, or writing materials to an incompatible date.

• Historical Pioneers & Landmark Cases:

  • François Demelle (1609): Published the first treatise on systematic document examination.
  • Gilbert Thompson (1882): U.S. Geological Survey; first recorded use of thumbprints on pay chits to prevent document forgery.
  • Albert Sherman Osborn: "Father of Questioned Document Examination". Author of Questioned Documents. Key expert witness in the 1932 State vs. Bruno Richard Hauptmann case (Lindbergh kidnapping ransom notes).
  • 
  • Alfred Dreyfus Case (1894, France): Treason trial involving forged military letters (Bordereau).

• Graphology vs. Questioned Document Examination:

  • Graphology: Pseudoscience attempting to profile personality traits from handwriting features.
  • 
  • Forensic Questioned Document Examiner: Scientific analysis of physical document details to determine authorship, source, or authenticity.

• Handwriting Mechanics & Terminology:

  • Muscles Involved: Extensor muscles (push pen up for upward strokes) and Flexor muscles (pull pen down for downward strokes).
  • Styles: Cursive (connected letters), Script (separated letters), Block (capitalized).
  • Movements: Finger, Hand (wrist pivot), Forearm (elbow support), Whole Arm (blackboard motion).
  • Stroke Terminology:
    • Arc: Top internal curve inside loops ($h, m, n$).
    • Ascender: Upper loop extending above top ratio line ($b, d, h, k$).
    • Descender: Lower loop extending below baseline ($g, j, p, q, y$).
    • Baseline: Ruled or imaginary line upon which writing rests.
    • Beard / Embellishment: Rudimentary initial upstroke.
    • Bowl: Fully rounded circular form ($o, a, b, d$).
    • Diacritics: Elements added to complete letters ($i$-dots, $t$-crosses).
    • Hiatus / Pen Jump: Gap occurring in a continuous stroke without lifting pen.
    • Pen Lift: Interruption caused by lifting pen from paper.
    • Retracing: Superimposing a stroke over an existing stroke.
    • Patching / Retouching: Careful correction of a defective stroke portion (common forgery defect).

• Handwriting Characteristics:

  • Class Characteristics: General features common to a specific school or system of writing (e.g., Palmer, Zaner-Bloser, Spencerian).
  • Individual Characteristics: Unique habits resulting from personal muscular control, speed, slant, proportion, alignment, skill level, and pressure.
  • Types of Standards / Exemplars:
    • Collected Standards: Authentic signatures/writings executed in the ordinary course of business/life (preferably written within $5\text{ years}$ of disputed date).
    • Request Standards: Exemplars written upon dictation by the subject for comparison.
    • Post Litem Motam Exemplars: Writings produced after the dispute arose (disqualified due to self-serving bias).

• Signatures & Forgery Classifications:

  • Signature Types: Formal/Conventional, Informal/Cursory (Semi-personalized or Personalized), Careless Scribble.
  • Forgery Classes:
    1. Simple / Spurious Forgery: Forger writes name without attempting to imitate the genuine style.
    2. Simulated Forgery: Freehand drawing imitating a genuine signature model in front of the forger.
    3. Traced Forgery: Transferring an exact facsimile of a genuine signature via Carbon Outline, Indention, Transmitted Light, or Laser methods.
    4. Cut and Paste Forgery: Assembled using photocopies or digital scanners.

• Alterations, Erasures, & Typewriting:

  • Alterations: Additions, Deletions, Interlineation (writing between lines), Intercallation (substituting whole pages).
  • Erasures: Mechanical (abrasive scraping) vs. Chemical (ink eradicators/bleaching agents).
  • Charred Documents: Deciphered using Infra-Red photography/imaging.
  • Typewriting Identification:
    • Pica: $10\text{ characters per inch}$.
    • Elite: $12\text{ characters per inch}$.
    • Teletype: $6\text{ characters per inch}$.
    • Defects: Alignment defects (twisted, off-its-feet, horizontal/vertical mis-alignment), Clogged typefaces.

• Banknote Counterfeiting & Philippine Currency (NGC):

  • Printing Processes: Engraving (intaglio raised ink on genuine notes), Letterpress (serial numbers), Offset Printing (planographic, common for counterfeiters).
  • Philippine New Generation Currency (NGC):
    • 4 Adjectives: Matibay (Abaca blend), Makulay, Maganda, Malinis.
    • Tactile Marks (Elderly/Visually Impaired): Pairs of horizontal bands (1000-Piso = 5 pairs; 500-Piso = 4 pairs; 200-Piso = 3 pairs; 100-Piso = 2 pairs; 50-Piso = 1 pair).
    • Key Features:
      • 1000-Piso: Blue; Tubbataha Reefs, South Sea Pearl; Abad Santos, Lim, Escoda.
      • 500-Piso: Yellow; Underground River, Blue-Naped Parrot; Corazon & Benigno Aquino Jr.
      • 200-Piso: Green; Chocolate Hills, Tarsier; Diosdado Macapagal.
      • 100-Piso: Violet; Mayon Volcano, Whale Shark (Butanding); Manuel Roxas.
      • 50-Piso: Red; Taal Lake, Giant Trevally (Maliputo); Sergio Osmeña.
      • 20-Piso: Orange; Banaue Rice Terraces, Palm Civet; Manuel L. Quezon.

Lie Detection Techniques (Polygraphy)

• Definitions & Core Concepts:

  • Polygraphy: Scientific method of detecting deception using a polygraph instrument.
  • Polygraph: Instrument measuring and recording physiological responses (blood pressure, pulse, respiration, electrodermal resistance) during questioning.
  • Stimulus: Force or motion exciting sensory receptors.
  • Response: Activity resulting from stimulation. Specific Response is any deviation from normal baseline tracings.
  • Deception: Act of deceiving or misleading, usually accompanied by lying.

• Major Sections & Components of a Polygraph Instrument:

  1. Pneumograph Component: Records breathing/respiration cycles via two corrugated rubber tubes attached around the chest (Thoracic/Pneumo 1) and abdomen (Abdominal/Pneumo 2).
  2. Galvanograph Component: Measures electrodermal activity (EDA / Galvanic Skin Response [GSR]) via finger electrode plates attached to the index and ring fingers.
  3. Cardiosphygmograph Component: Measures cardiovascular activity via a Blood Pressure Cuff over the brachial artery, inflated using a pump bulb to a baseline measured on a Sphygmomanometer (typically $60\text{ mm Hg}$). Records relative blood volume (systolic and diastolic pressures), pulse rate, pulse amplitude, and the dicrotic notch.
  4. Kymograph Component: Paper feed mechanism driving chart paper at a constant uniform speed of $5\text{ seconds per vertical division}$ ($12\text{ divisions/min}$ = $6\text{ inches/min}$).
  5. Pen and Inking System: Capillary ink pens recording permanent tracings on the moving chart.

• Tripod Foundation / Premises of Polygraphy:

  • Mechanical Leg Premise: Machine is capable of graphically recording reliable physiological changes.
  • Physiological Leg Premise: Stimulation of the autonomic nervous system causes involuntary, diagnosable physiological changes.
  • Psychological Leg Premise: Involuntary mental and emotional processes of an individual consciously attempting deception trigger autonomic responses when something is at stake.

• Psychophysiology of Lying & Autonomic Nervous System:

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord; controls voluntary motor/sensory functions.
  • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary physiological functions. Divided into two complementary branches:
    • Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): Emergency/action system ("Fight, Flight, or Freeze" response). Secretes Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) from the adrenal glands, elevating blood pressure, heart rate, and skin conductivity while suppressing digestion.
    • Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): Restorative/braking system; maintains internal balance (Homeostasis).

• Non-Polygraph Deception Detection Methods:

  • Ancient Ordeals:
    • Trial by Combat: Accuser and accused fight; loser judged guilty.
    • Red Hot Iron Ordeal: Licking red hot iron 9 times; burned tongue indicates guilt.
    • Boiling Water Ordeal: Plunging arm into boiling water; blisters indicate guilt.
    • Ordeal of Rice Chewing: Chewing sathee rice; dry mouth/blood-stained saliva indicates guilt due to salivary inhibition under fear.
    • Red Water / Sassy Bark Ordeal: Ingesting toxic red fluid; vomiting clears suspect.
    • Donkey's Tail Ordeal: Psychological trick; soot-covered tail in a dark room; suspect who does not touch tail due to fear of braying is caught with clean hands.
    • Ordeal of the Bier: Suspect touches corpse; re-bleeding wounds indicate murderer.
  • Observation Methods:
    • Verbal Clues: Response latency, repeating questions, fragmented sentences, unnecessary oaths, excessive politeness.
    • Non-Verbal Clues: Emblems, manipulators (hair pulling, fidgeting), dry mouth (frequent swallowing, Adam's apple movement), pupil dilation, altered blink rate.
  • Hypnotism: Introduced 1778 by Franz Anton Mesmer. Inadmissible in court due to lack of general scientific acceptance, distortion of facts, suggestibility, and memory fabrication.
  • Pharmacological Methods (Inadmissible):
    • Truth Serum: Hyoscine Hydrobromide administered hypodermically.
    • Narcoanalysis / Narcosynthesis: Intravenous Sodium Amytal or Sodium Pentothal.
    • Intoxication: Alcohol ("In vino veritas").
  • Other Instrumentation:
    • Word Association Test: Sir Francis Galton (1879); measures response time latency.
    • Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE): Voice stress analysis measuring inaudible laryngeal micro-tremors (invented by Allan Bell Jr. and Charles McQuinston).
    • Brain Wave Fingerprinting: EEG measuring the $P300$ brain wave triggered by familiar crime details (invented by Dr. Lawrence Farwell).
    • Pupillometry / EyeTracking / EyeDetect: Assessing pupil dilation and eye movement.

• History & Pioneers of Polygraphy:

  • Daniel Defoe (1730): Suggested taking pulse rate to detect lying.
  • Angelo Mosso (1878): Used plethysmograph and scientific cradle to study fear and cardiovascular changes.
  • Sir James Mackenzie (1892/1906): Constructed clinical ink polygraph.
  • Cesare Lombroso (1895): First to use an instrument (Hydrosphygmograph) in actual criminal interrogations.
  • Vittorio Benussi (1914): Discovered respiration changes (inhalation/exhalation ratio) accompanying deception via pneumograph.
  • Dr. William Moulton Marston (1915/1917): Developed discontinuous systolic blood pressure test using a sphygmomanometer; self-proclaimed "father of the polygraph".
  • Dr. John A. Larson (1921): Built the first continuous lie detector recording blood pressure, pulse, and respiration simultaneously. The real "Father of Lie Detection".
  • Leonarde Keeler (1926/1949): Designed metal recording bellows, built-in kymograph, added galvanograph, developed Relevant-Irrelevant technique. "Father of Modern Polygraphy".
  • Cleve Backster (1960s): Formulated Backster Zone Comparison Technique, Psychological Set Theory, Anticlimax Dampening Concept, and Color Coding (Green = Control; Red = Relevant; Black = Symptomatic).

• Four Phases of Polygraph Examination:

  1. Phase I (Preliminary Preparation / Case Review): Reviewing investigation facts, spot reports, and evidence details with the investigator.
  2. Phase II (Pre-Test Interview): Informing subject of rights, obtaining signed voluntary consent, taking personal data, reviewing test questions.
  3. Phase III (Instrumental Examination / Actual Test): Attaching sensors (Pneumograph $\rightarrow$ Cardiosphygmograph $\rightarrow$ Galvanograph); running test charts ($3 - 4\text{ charts}$ minimum, max $12\text{ questions}$ per chart, max $4\text{ minutes}$ duration per chart, $5 - 10\text{ minutes}$ rest between charts).
  4. Phase IV (Post-Test Interview / Interrogation): Interviewing non-deceptive subjects or interrogating deceptive subjects to elicit a confession.

• Types of Test Questions:

  • Irrelevant Questions: Neutral baseline questions (e.g., "Do you drink water?").
  • Strong Relevant Questions: Direct questions about the offense (e.g., "Did you steal the watch?").
  • Weak / Secondary Relevant Questions: Questions probing guilty knowledge or partial involvement.
  • Control Questions: Primary Control (known lie, e.g., "Before age 25, did you ever steal anything?") vs. Secondary Control.
  • Knowledge Questions: Probing knowledge of identity/facts.
  • Guilt-Complex Questions: Based on a fictitious crime to test over-reactivity.
  • Symptomatic Questions: Detects outside issues/fears (e.g., "Do you understand I won't ask trick questions?").
  • Sacrifice / DYAT Question: "Do you intend to answer truthfully?"
  • S-K-Y Questions: Suspect, Know, You questions used in Backster Chart 3.

• Chart Markings & Symbols:

  • Primary Markings: $X$ (Test start), $XX$ (Test end), $60/1.5\text{ A}$ ($60\text{ mm Hg}$ pressure / $1.5\text{ A}$ galvo amplifier), $|\ \ |$ (Question stimulus start/stop), $+$ (Yes answer), $-$ (No answer).
  • Secondary Markings: $A$ (Adjustment), $T$ (Talked), $R$ (Repeat request), $C$ (Cough), $N$ (Noise), $S$ (Sigh), $PJ$ (Paper jam), $SN$ (Sniff), $M$ (Movement), $CT$ (Clearing throat).

• Diagnostic Errors & Legal Status:

  • False Positive: Erroneous decision that a truthful subject is deceptive.
  • False Negative: Erroneous decision that a deceptive subject is truthful.
  • Inconclusive: Insufficient physiological response variation to make a definitive diagnosis.
  • U.S. Benchmark Case: United States v. Frye (1923) $ ightarrow$ Established the Frye Standard; polygraph test results excluded due to lack of general scientific acceptance.
  • Philippine Jurisprudence on Polygraph Evidence:
    • People v. Daniel (1978): Polygraph test results ruled unreliable.
    • People v. Adoviso (1999): Polygraph results rejected; lacking scientific acceptance.
    • People v. Reanzares (2000): Lie detector test has never been accepted in Philippine jurisdiction.
    • People v. Carpo (2001): Polygraph results are inadmissible as evidence in court.