Comprehensive History of the First World War and the Interwar Period
Political Tensions and the Origins of the First World War
Starting from the end of the 19th century, a primary cause for the confrontation between Germany and France was the mutual desire for dominance over the European continent. Simultaneously, Great Britain and Germany competed fiercely for control over maritime routes and world trade. These rivalries between colonial powers and rising nationalists formed the primary causes of the First World War. Germany, which lacked colonies, began to claim territories starting in 1870, eventually securing small colonial establishments in China (Tsingtao), the Pacific Islands, and Africa.
The specific origin of the war is rooted in the geopolitical desires of the Slavic peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who sought independence from Austria-Hungary to become part of Serbia. The Slavs are an ancient people originating from Northeast Europe who settled in regions encompassing modern-day Russia, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia. Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in the Balkan Peninsula in Southeast Europe, with its national capital at Sarajevo. Serbia is a state in Southeast Europe situated between Macedonia and Hungary, also located in the Balkans.
The Balkan Peninsula is one of the three large peninsulas in Southeast Europe, connected to the mainland by the Balkan Mountains to the east and the Dinaric Alps to the west. The countries making up the Balkans include Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovenia, Greece, Italy, Macedonia, and Romania. Nationalism in these European countries contributed directly to the start and extension of the war as nations sought to demonstrate power and dominance. The Balkan region served as the focal point of tension, especially as peoples of the Ottoman Empire, such as Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania, achieved independence.
Austria aimed to dominate the Balkan region where subject peoples still resided. Russia also harbored ambitions for the zone, seeking control over the maritime passage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. This competition generated widespread unease and triggered an arms race, where states spent significant wealth on war prevention activities. Consequently, the powers organized military alliances: the Triple Alliance composed of Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Italy, facing the Triple Entente composed of France, Great Britain, and Russia.
The Assassination in Sarajevo and the Outbreak of War
The definitive event that triggered the war's outbreak was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Duchess Sophie Chotek, on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia. The couple was traveling in a Gräf & Stift Double Phaeton convertible at the time of the attack. The assassination was carried out by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the "Young Bosnia" (Joven Bosnia) group, which was controlled by the Serbian terrorist organization known as the "Black Hand" (Mano Negra).
In the aftermath of the crime, the Austro-Hungarian Empire rejected the measures taken by Serbia regarding the investigation and issued an ultimatum. On July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia. Two days later, Russia decreed the general mobilization of its army against Austria. Germany warned Russia that continued mobilization would lead to a declaration of war, though Germany did manage to get Austria to agree to discussions with Russia for a brief moment.
Germany subsequently directed an ultimatum to Russia demanding the suspension of its general mobilization and sent an ultimatum to France demanding neutrality in the event of a conflict between Germany and Russia. Germany specifically demanded the immediate withdrawal of Russian troops. When Russia refused to comply, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. The French began their own mobilization that same day. German troops crossed the border into Luxembourg on August 2, 1914, and Germany declared war on France on August 3, 1914. The German government informed the Belgian government of its intention to march through Belgium to reach France.
The System of Alliances and the Violation of Neutrality
Belgian authorities refused to allow German troops passage and appealed to the signatory countries of the Treaty of 1839, which guaranteed Belgian neutrality. Signatories of this convention included the United Kingdom, Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia. On August 4, 1914, Great Britain sent an ultimatum to Germany demanding respect for Belgian neutrality. Germany rejected the request, leading the British government to declare war. Between August 11 and 12, 1914, France and Great Britain declared war on Austria-Hungary.
Italy remained neutral until May 1915, at which point it broke its pact with the Triple Alliance and declared war on Austria-Hungary. The unity of the Allies was further strengthened in September 1914 through the Pact of London, signed by France, Great Britain, and Russia. The Triple Alliance had been initially integrated by the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire under the initiative of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, with Italy joining later because it believed the alliance was the best path to achieving great power status. The Triple Entente, formed in 1907, was based on the 1894 Franco-Russian alliance, the 1904 Entente Cordiale between France and Britain, and the 1907 Anglo-Russian agreement.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was a European state created in 1867 following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise, which equalized the status of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Austrian Empire under a single monarch, Franz Joseph I (Francisco José I).
The First Stage: The War of Movements (1914)
The first stage of the conflict took place throughout 1914 and centered on German efforts to defeat France and annihilate the Russian army. During this period, the Germans employed a strategy of rapid movements intended to surprise adversaries, known as the "War of Movements." This included the invasion of Belgium and Luxembourg in a "lightning attack" or Blitzkrieg. This strategy failed due to the rapid intervention of Great Britain and French resistance near the Marne River near Paris.
Germany executed the plan designed by Chief of Staff General Alfred Von Schlieffen, which involved invading neutral Belgium to surprise the French from the north and reach Paris within weeks. The French forces eventually retreated and concentrated their troops around the Marne River. The Battle of the Marne, occurring between September 5 and September 12, 1914, was a strategic Allied victory representing the failure of the Schlieffen Plan and the maximum point of German advancement in France.
The Second Stage: The War of Trenches (1915-1916)
The second stage, lasting from 1915 to 1916, is known as the "War of Trenches" (Guerra de Trincheras) or "War of Positions" (Guerra de Posiciones). This stage resulted from the failure of the lightning war and necessitated a change in strategy. Armies established themselves on the Western Front, leading to bloody battles such as Verdun and the Somme in 1916. During this phase of attrition, neither side made significant advances, and the war became characterized by continuous bombardment of enemy trenches and economic strangulation.
The Battle of Verdun, fought from February 21 to December 18, 1916, was the longest and largest battle of the war on the Western Front between German and French armies. It was an absurd confrontation resulting in approximately casualties, including dead and wounded, divided almost equally between the two sides. The Battle of the Somme was even bloodier; on the first day alone, British soldiers died. Over four months, an estimated million people were killed, wounded, or went missing.
On the Eastern Front, the German army attacked Russia, where it easily defeated Tsarist troops and forced a retreat. Conflicts also occurred on the border between Russia and Austria-Hungary, where Tsarist armies continued to weaken. In these regions, cavalry remained a primary tactic. While the Western and Eastern fronts were the most important land combat zones, other fronts existed in the Balkans, Middle East, Italy, and Africa, along with naval operations in the English Channel, North Sea, Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Adriatic.
Trench Warfare and Military Technology
During the war, three types of trenches were utilized. The Fire Trench (Trinchera de fuego) was the front line where attack fire was directed. The Support Trench (Trinchera de apoyo) housed support weaponry like machine guns. The Reserve Trench (Trinchera de reserva) contained underground shelters and zones for food and ammunition resupply. Trench features included parapets, firing steps, culverts, and wooden platforms (tarima).
Military innovations were frequent. The British Mark IV tank featured tracks that allowed it to cross trenches and crush barbed wire. The Mark I tank was first used in combat on September 15, 1916, during the Battle of Flers-Courcelette, part of the Somme offensive. The French Renault FT-17, designed by Colonel Jean-Baptiste Estienne when heavy tanks like the Schneider CA were difficult to produce, was the first tank with a 360-degree rotating turret. Germany also developed attack vehicles known as Panzer. Flamethrowers were first reported in use in early 1915.
Naval warfare reached its peak at the Battle of Jutland on May 31, 1916, the largest naval confrontation of the war. The British fleet (151 ships, including 24 battleships) intercepted the German Imperial Navy. Over 36 hours, roughly men died and ships were sunk: the British lost men and ships, while the Germans lost men and ships. Winston Churchill, as First Lord of the Admiralty, also launched a disastrous offensive on the Dardanelles (a strait between Europe and Asia) to defeat the Ottoman Empire and open a supply route to Russia.
Aerial combat saw production grow from a few hundred units at the start of the war to tens of thousands. Manfred von Richthofen, the "Red Baron," became the "ace of aces," shooting down enemy planes. In April 1917 alone, his unit shot down British planes against losses. Richthofen was killed on April 21, 1918.
Chemical Warfare and Social Impact
Poisonous gas was a major innovation, ranging from tear gas to incapacitating agents like mustard gas and lethal agents like phosgene. Germany was the first to use gas on a large scale on January 31, 1915. Mustard gas, introduced by Germany in July 1917, was designed to incapacitate the enemy and contaminate the battlefield rather than kill immediately. Large-scale gas use by the Germans also occurred in April 1915.
Significant social events included the Christmas Truce of 1914, an unofficial ceasefire on the Western Front where German and British troops decorated trenches and sang carols on December 24. Women also played a vital role in munitions factories and as soldiers; notable figures mentioned include Mata Hari, Edith Cavell, and Milunka Savic. Medical efforts included Hungarian Red Cross ambulances and improvised operating rooms in places like Transbaikalia, Russia (1916). More than million people died between 1914 and 1918. Adolf Hitler served as a soldier in the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment (Regiment List) and was wounded once during the conflict.
The Final Stage and the Crisis of 1917
The final stage, the "Crisis of 1917," broke the existing equilibrium. German submarines sank two ships with American passengers, leading the U.S., under President Woodrow Wilson, to enter the conflict in support of the Allies in April 1917. Conversely, Russia withdrew from the war after signing an armistice with the Central Powers, resulting in massive economic and territorial losses. Germany subsequently occupied Poland, Ukraine, Finland, the Baltic states, and parts of Belarus. With Russia out, Germany moved all troops to the Western Front for a final victory before U.S. arrival.
The Decisive Campaign began in March 1918. The weakened German army failed to attack Paris. French and American troops achieved a victory at the second Battle of the Marne, where British tanks and aviation played a critical role. Between 1914 and 1918, to million people died in Europe. In Russia, between 1914 and 1922 (including the Civil War), million died. Germany and France suffered the highest casualties.
Post-War Consequences and the League of Nations
The war led to a demographic catastrophe, including a fertility decline resulting in million fewer births. Post-war years were marked by a crisis of the bourgeois identity formed in the 19th century. While democracy initially gained ground over authoritarian regimes, democratization did not consolidate, and the economic crisis of the 1930s led back toward authoritarianism.
Economically, the war caused the definitive loss of European hegemony. Productive infrastructure in contending territories was destroyed, transforming economic policies toward state interventionism and the dominance of large industrial corporations. The United States emerged as the world's leading economic power. Socially, the war fueled revolutionary processes in Russia and Germany, and social tensions increased over the next two decades.
The League of Nations (Sociedad de las Naciones or SDN) was established by the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919. It was based on principles of international cooperation, arbitration of conflicts, and collective security to maintain peace and reorganize international relations.
The Interwar Period (1918-1939)
The Interwar period covers the two decades between the end of WWI and the start of WWII. It was characterized by the consolidation of the Soviet Union, the development of the international communist movement, and the surge of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany. The era began with a fictitious post-war recovery known as the "Roaring Twenties," followed by the Great Depression in the 1930s. The period is divided into four stages:
- 1919 to 1924: Tensions regarding the Treaty of Versailles. Germany suspended payments, and France militarily occupied the Ruhr Basin (Cuenca del Ruhr).
- 1925 to 1929: A period of international cooperation initiated by the Treaty of Locarno (1925). The U.S., Germany, and the USSR joined the League of Nations. The Dawes Plan (Plan Dawes) reduced the indemnity payments required of Germany.
- 1929 to 1939: The New York Stock Exchange crash (Crak) led to the quiebra of the U.S. economy. The resulting unemployment and social conflict paved the way for the rise of Fascism.
- Rise of Totalitarianism: Post-war tensions and the discontent of the defeated nations facilitated the rise of totalitarian states under Hitler in Germany, Mussolini in Italy, and Franco in Spain.
Las tensiones políticas a partir del final del siglo XIX se centraron en la confrontación entre Alemania y Francia por el dominio sobre el continente europeo. Al mismo tiempo, Gran Bretaña y Alemania competían ferozmente por el control de rutas marítimas y el comercio mundial. Estas rivalidades entre potencias coloniales y nacionalistas en ascenso formaron las causas primarias de la Primera Guerra Mundial. Alemania, que carecía de colonias, comenzó a reclamar territorios a partir de 1870, asegurando eventualmente pequeños asentamientos coloniales en China (Tsingtao), en las Islas del Pacífico y en África. El origen específico de la guerra radica en los deseos geopolíticos de los pueblos eslavos de Bosnia y Herzegovina, quienes buscaban independizarse de Austria-Hungría para convertirse en parte de Serbia. Los eslavos son un pueblo antiguo que se originó en el noreste de Europa y se estableció en regiones que incluyen la actual Rusia, Polonia, Bielorrusia, Ucrania, República Checa, Eslovaquia, Eslovenia, Bosnia, Croacia y Serbia. Bosnia y Herzegovina se encuentra en la Península de los Balcanes en el sureste de Europa, con su capital nacional en Sarajevo. Serbia es un estado en el sureste de Europa, situado entre Macedonia y Hungría, también en los Balcanes. La Península de los Balcanes es una de las tres grandes penínsulas en el sureste de Europa, conectada al continente por los Montes Balcanes al este y los Alpes Dináricos al oeste. Los países que componen los Balcanes incluyen Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croacia, Eslovenia, Grecia, Italia, Macedonia y Rumania. El nacionalismo en estos países europeos contribuyó directamente al inicio y la extensión de la guerra, ya que las naciones buscaban demostrar poder y dominio. La región de los Balcanes fue el punto focal de tensión, especialmente a medida que pueblos del Imperio Otomano, como Grecia, Serbia, Bulgaria y Rumanía, lograron su independencia. Austria aspiraba a dominar la región balcánica donde aún residían pueblos sometidos. Rusia también albergaba ambiciones por la zona, buscando control sobre el paso marítimo del Mar Negro al Mar Mediterráneo. Esta competencia generó una gran inquietud y provocó una carrera armamentista, donde los estados gastaron riquezas significativas en actividades de prevención de la guerra. Como consecuencia, las potencias organizaron alianzas militares: la Triple Alianza compuesta por Alemania, el Imperio Austro-Húngaro y Italia, frente a la Triple Entente compuesta por Francia, Gran Bretaña y Rusia. La cuestión del asesinato en Sarajevo y el estallido de la guerra tuvo lugar el 28 de junio de 1914 con el asesinato del archiduque Francisco Fernando y su esposa, la duquesa Sofía Chotek. El atentado fue llevado a cabo por Gavrilo Princip, un miembro del grupo "La Joven Bosnia", controlado por la organización terrorista serbia conocida como "La Mano Negra". Posteriormente, Austria-Hungría rechazó las medidas adoptadas por Serbia sobre la investigación y emitió un ultimátum. El 28 de julio de 1914, Austria declaró la guerra a Serbia. Dos días después, Rusia decretó la movilización general de su ejército contra Austria. Alemania advirtió a Rusia que la movilización continuada conduciría a una declaración de guerra, aunque Alemania logró que Austria aceptara discutir con Rusia por un breve momento. Alemania dirigió un ultimátum a Rusia exigiendo la suspensión de su movilización general y envió un ultimátum a Francia exigiendo neutralidad en caso de un conflicto entre Alemania y Rusia. Cuando Rusia se negó a cumplir, Alemania declaró la guerra a Rusia el 1 de agosto de 1914. Las fuerzas francesas comenzaron su propia movilización ese mismo día. Las tropas alemanas cruzaron la frontera hacia Luxemburgo el 2 de agosto de 1914, y Alemania declaró la guerra a Francia el 3 de agosto de 1914. El gobierno alemán informó al gobierno belga de su intención de marchar a través de Bélgica para llegar a Francia. Las autoridades belgas se negaron a permitir el paso de tropas alemanas y apelaron a los países signatarios del Tratado de 1839, que garantizaba la neutralidad belga. En respuesta, Gran Bretaña envió un ultimátum a Alemania exigiendo el respeto a la neutralidad belga. Alemania rechazó la solicitud, lo que llevó al gobierno británico a declarar la guerra. Entre el 11 y el 12 de agosto de 1914, Francia y Gran Bretaña declararon la guerra a Austria-Hungría. Italia permaneció neutral hasta mayo de 1915, momento en el que rompió su pacto con la Triple Alianza y declaró la guerra a Austria-Hungría. La unidad de los Aliados se consolidó aún más en septiembre de 1914 a través del Pacto de Londres, firmado por Francia, Gran Bretaña y Rusia. La Triple Alianza fue inicialmente integrada por el Imperio Alemán y el Imperio Austro-Húngaro bajo la iniciativa del canciller Otto von Bismarck, con Italia uniéndose más tarde porque consideraba que la alianza era el mejor camino para lograr un estatus de gran potencia. La Triple Entente, formada en 1907, se basó en la alianza franco-rusa de 1894, la Entente Cordiale entre Francia y Gran Bretaña de 1904, y el acuerdo anglo-ruso de 1907. El Imperio Austro-Húngaro fue un estado europeo creado en 1867 tras el Compromiso Austro-Húngaro, que igualó el estatus del Reino de Hungría y el Imperio Austríaco bajo un solo monarca, Francisco José I. La primera etapa del conflicto tuvo lugar a lo largo de 1914 y se centró en los esfuerzos alemanes para derrotar a Francia y aniquilar al ejército ruso, utilizando una estrategia de movimientos rápidos. Esta estrategia falló debido a la rápida intervención de Gran Bretaña y la resistencia francesa cerca del río Marne. La batalla del Marne, que tuvo lugar entre el 5 y el 12 de septiembre de 1914, representó una victoria estratégica aliada que marcó el fracaso del Plan Schlieffen. La segunda etapa, conocida como la "Guerra de Trincheras", resultó del fracaso de la guerra relámpago y dio lugar a la guerra de posiciones con batallas sangrientas en Verdun y el Somme. La guerra vio el uso frecuente de trincheras, tecnologías militares como el tanque británico Mark IV y el uso de gas venenoso. La última etapa, la "Crisis de 1917", rompió el equilibrio existente. Los submarinos alemanes hundieron dos barcos con pasajeros estadounidenses, llevando a la entrada de EE.UU. en el conflicto en apoyo de los Aliados. Rusia se retiró de la guerra, firmando un armisticio con las Potencias Centrales. El estado de la guerra resultó en enormes pérdidas demográficas y sociales, con la creación de la Sociedad de Naciones, buscando mantener la paz y reorganizar las relaciones internacionales después de la guerra. El período de entreguerras estuvo caracterizado por la consolidación de la Unión Soviética, el desarrollo del movimiento comunista y el auge del fascismo en Italia y el nazismo en Alemania, culminando en la Gran Depresión y el ascenso de regímenes totalitarios en Europa.