Chapter 4- Contemporary Grand Theories

functions–Consequences that can be observed and that help a particular system adapt or adjust (Davis and

Moore).

societal functionalism–A variety of structural functionalism that focuses on the large-scale social structures and institutions of society, their interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors.

social stratification–To the structural functionalist, a structure involving a hierarchy of positions that has

the function of leading those people with the needed skills and abilities to do what is necessary to move into the

high-ranking positions that are most important to society’s functioning and survival

adaptation–One of Parsons’s four functional imperatives. A system must adjust to its environment and adjust

the environment to its needs. More specifically, a system must cope with external situational dangers and

contingencies

goal attainment–The second of Parsons’s functional imperatives involving the need for a system to define

and achieve its primary goals.

integration–The third of Parsons’s functional imperatives, requiring that a system seek to regulate the inter-

relationships of its component parts. Integration also involves the management of the relationships among the

other three functional imperatives (AGL).

latency–The first aspect of Parsons’s fourth functional imperative involving the need for a system to furnish,

maintain, and renew the motivation of individuals.

pattern maintenance–The second aspect of Parsons’s fourth functional imperative, involving the need for

a system to furnish, maintain, and renew the cultural patterns that create and sustain individual motivation.

behavioral organism–The Parsonsian action system responsible for handling the adaptation function by

adjusting to and transforming the external world.

personality system–The Parsonsian action system responsible for performing the goal attainment function

by defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain them.

social system–The Parsonsian action system responsible for coping with the integration function by control-

ling its component parts: a number of human actors who interact with one another in a situation with a physical

or environmental context.

cultural system–The Parsonsian action system that performs the latency function by providing actors with

the norms and values that motivate them for action.

status–A structural position within the social system (Parsons).

role–What an actor does in a status, seen in the context of its functional significance for the larger system

(Parsons).

need-dispositions–To Parsons, drives that are shaped by the social setting.

society–To Parsons, a relatively self-sufficient collectivity.

economy–To Parsons, the subsystem of society that performs the function of adapting to the environment

polity–To Parsons, the subsystem of society that performs the function of goal attainment by pursuing societal

objectives and mobilizing actors and resources to that end.

fiduciary system–To Parsons, the subsystem of society that handles the pattern maintenance and latency

function by transmitting culture (norms and values) to actors and seeing to it that they internalize that culture.

societal community–To Parsons, the subsystem of society that performs the integration function coordinat-

ing the components of society

personality–To Parsons, the individual actor’s organized system of orientation to, and motivation for, action

middle-range theories–Theories that seek a middle ground between trying to explain the entirety of the

social world and trying to explain a minute portion of that world (Merton)

dysfunctions–Observable consequences that have adverse effects on the ability of a particular system to

adapt or adjust (Merton).

nonfunctions–Consequences that are irrelevant to the system under consideration (Merton)

debunking–Looking beyond stated intentions to real effects (Merton).

imperatively coordinated associations–Associations of people controlled by a hierarchy of authority

positions (Dahrendorf).

interests–Concerns, usually shared by groups of people (Dahrendorf)

latent interests–Unconscious interests that translate into objective role expectations (Dahrendorf).

manifest interests–Latent interests of which people have become conscious (Dahrendorf).

quasi group–A number of individuals who occupy positions that have the same role interests (Dahrendorf).

interest group–A true group in the sociological sense of the term, possessing not only common interests but

also structure, a goal, and personnel. Interest groups have the capacity to engage in group conflict (Dahrendorf).

conflict group–A group that actually engages in group conflict (Dahrendorf).

lumpenproletariat–The mass of people who stand below even the proletariat in the capitalist system (Marx).

complexity–In systems theory, the incalculable possibilities for action and interaction in the world. Social

systems develop by reducing the world’s complexity (Luhmann).

contingency–A quality of the organization of a system that is context bound and open to continual change

(Luhmann).

autopoiesis–The self-making or, more broadly, self-organizing quality of systems (Luhmann).

elements–The building blocks of a system (Luhmann).

differentiation–The process by which systems make distinctions (Luhmann)

segmentary differentiation–The division of parts of the system on the basis of the need to fulfill identical

functions over and over (Luhmann).

stratificatory differentiation–Vertical differentiation according to rank or status in a system conceived

as a hierarchy (Luhmann).

center-periphery differentiation–Differentiation between the core of a system and its peripheral ele-

ments (Luhmann).

functional differentiation–The most complex form of differentiation and the form that dominates modern

society. Every function within a system is ascribed to a particular unit (Luhmann).

1. Structural functionalism is a theory that focuses on the structures of society

and their functional significance (positive and negative consequences) for other

structures.

2. One type of structural functionalism is societal functionalism, which

focuses on the large-scale social structures and institutions of society, their

interrelationships, and their constraining effects on actors.

3. To structural functionalists, social stratification is a functional necessity. Every

society needs such a system, and this need brings stratification into existence.The stratification system is viewed as a societal-level structure; it is a system of

positions (e.g., occupations, like laborer and manager) rather than a system of

stratified individuals.

4. According to the functional theory of stratification, people must be offered great

rewards for doing what is necessary to occupy the high-ranking and crucially

important positions in the stratification system.

5. The functional theory of stratification has been widely criticized. The key point

made by critics is that there are ways to motivate people to do things other than

offering them inordinate benefits.

6. To Talcott Parsons, any system is faced with four functional imperatives:

adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and pattern maintenance

(or latency).

7. The four Parsonsian action systems, in order of their control over the system

below them, are cultural, social, personality, and behavioral organism.

8. Robert Merton developed a sophisticated model of a structural-functional

approach involving a focus not only on functions but also on dysfunctions,

nonfunctions, net balance, levels of functional analysis, manifest and latent

functions, and unanticipated consequences.

9. Conflict theory developed in reaction to structural functionalism and is in many

ways its mirror image, focusing on change (rather than equilibrium), dissension,

and conflict (rather than order), forces that contribute to disintegration (rather

than integration) and the coercion (rather than norms and values) that holds

society together.

10. Ralf Dahrendorf’s focus was on authority, which always implies superordination

and subordination. The organizations in which authority positions are found are

called imperatively coordinated associations.

11. Groups within these associations are defined by their interests; superordinate

and subordinate groups each have common interests.

12. Three types of groups are formed in imperatively coordinated associations,

especially among those in subordinate positions. The quasi group is a number

of individuals who occupy positions that have the same role interests. These are

the recruiting grounds for interest groups, which have the capacity to engage in

group conflict. Out of all the many interest groups emerge conflict groups, or

those groups that actually engage in conflict.

13. Conflict has the capacity to lead to change.

14. The key to understanding Niklas Luhmann’s distinction between system

and environment is the fact that the system is always less complex than the

environment.

15. Autopoiesis is the self-making or self-organizing feature of systems. This means

that systems constantly create and re-create their own structures and elements.

16. Differentiation is the system’s ability to make distinctions, first between itself and

its environment and then within itself.

17. The four types of differentiation are segmentary, stratificatory, center-periphery,

and functional.

18. Functional differentiation is the most complex form of differentiation and the

one that dominates society.