W2/L2: Normative Ethical Theories

PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO NORMATIVE ETHICAL THEORIES

What are Normative Ethical Theories?

Ethical theories are principles that guide decisions about what is right and wrong.

• Normative Ethical Theories prescribe the morally correct way of acting.

• Descriptive Ethical Theories describe how people make ethical decisions in practice.

Role of Ethical Theory

There are two extreme positions in ethics:

1. Ethical Absolutism

   • Universal moral principles apply in all situations.

   • Right and wrong are objective and can be determined rationally.

   • Associated with traditional ethical theories.

   • Example: "Murder is always wrong, regardless of culture or situation."

2. Ethical Relativism

   • Morality is context-dependent and subjective.

   • Right and wrong depend on the culture, situation, and perspective of the decision-maker.

   • Associated with contemporary ethical theories.

   • Example: "Bribery might be wrong in one country but acceptable in another."

Relativism vs. Absolutism

Differences Between North American and European Approaches

Religion vs. Philosophy in Ethics

PART 2: WESTERN MODERNIST ETHICAL THEORIES

Western ethical theories are divided into two major categories:

1. Deontological Ethics (Non-Consequentialist)

   • Morality depends on the intrinsic nature of the action.

   • Actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of outcomes.

   • Example: Lying is always wrong, even if it prevents harm.

2. Teleological Ethics (Consequentialist)

   • Morality depends on the consequences of the action.

   • Right actions produce good outcomes.

   • Example: Lying is acceptable if it prevents harm.

Major Ethical Theories

1. Ethical Egoism (Self-Interest-Based)

• Key Thinkers:

  • Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) – Self-interest leads to social contracts.

  • Ayn Rand (1905-1982) – Self-interest is a virtue ("The Virtue of Selfishness").

• Principle:

  • An action is right if it benefits the decision-maker.

  • No moral obligation to others unless it serves one's self-interest.

• Example:

  • A company donates to charity to improve its public image (ethical egoism).

  • A company exploits workers for profit (selfishness, not egoism).

2. Utilitarianism (Greatest Happiness)

• Key Thinkers:

  • Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) – Greatest happiness principle.

  • John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) – Higher vs. lower pleasures.

• Principle:

  • Actions are right if they produce the greatest good for the greatest number.

  • Uses cost-benefit analysis to evaluate decisions.

• Types of Utilitarianism:

  1. Act Utilitarianism – Assesses individual actions based on immediate outcomes.

     • Example: Lying to save a life is acceptable.

  2. Rule Utilitarianism – Uses general rules that promote the greatest good in the long run.

     • Example: "Do not lie" is a general rule, but exceptions can exist.

• Problems with Utilitarianism:

  • Subjectivity: What defines "happiness"?

  • Quantification: How do we measure well-being?

  • Distribution Issues: Majority benefits may harm minorities.

3. Ethics of Duty (Deontology)

• Key Thinker:

  • Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) – Categorical Imperatives.

• Principle:

  • Morality is about duty, not consequences.

  • Actions must follow universal moral laws.

• Three Maxims (Kantian Ethics):

  1. Consistency (Universal Law) – Only act in ways that everyone should follow.

     • Example: If lying were universal, trust would break down.

  2. Human Dignity – Treat people as ends, not means.

     • Example: Don't exploit workers for profit.

  3. Universality – Morality should apply to all rational beings.

• Criticism:

  • Too rigid – no flexibility for complex moral issues.

4. Ethics of Rights and Justice

• Key Thinker:

  • John Rawls (1921-2002) – "Justice as fairness".

• Principle:

  • Human rights are inherent and inalienable.

  • Justice ensures fair treatment for all.

• Theory of Justice (Rawls):

  1. Liberty Principle – Every person should have equal rights.

  2. Difference Principle – Inequalities must benefit the least advantaged.

  3. Fair Opportunity – Equal access to opportunities.

• Example:

  • Governments should redistribute wealth to reduce inequality.

PART 3: NEW ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES

Traditional ethical theories have limitations:

• Too abstract – Not practical for business.

• Too impersonal – Ignore relationships and emotions.

• Too rational – Suppress moral intuition.

• Too elitist – Created by philosophers, not businesspeople.

Alternative Ethical Approaches

1. Virtue Ethics (Character-Based)

   • Focuses on developing good character traits.

   • Example: A responsible CEO prioritizes ethical leadership over profits.

2. Ethics of Care (Relationship-Based)

   • Emphasizes empathy and responsibility.

   • Example: Businesses should support community welfare.

3. Discourse Ethics (Dialogue-Based)

   • Ethics emerge through rational discussion.

   • Example: Ethical issues should be resolved via stakeholder dialogue.

4. Postmodern Ethics (Moral Impulse)

   • Focuses on gut feelings and moral intuition.

   • Example: Speaking out against injustice even if laws allow it.

Pluralism: A Balanced Approach

• Ethical decisions should consider multiple perspectives.

• No single theory is perfect for all situations.

• Example: A business decision might require utilitarian, Kantian, and justice-based reasoning.

Key Takeaways

✔ Normative ethical theories guide moral decision-making.
✔ Absolutism vs. Relativism: Universal principles vs. cultural context.
✔ Major Theories: Egoism (self-interest), Utilitarianism (greatest good), Kantianism (duty-based), and Justice (fairness).
✔ New Perspectives: Ethics of care, virtue ethics, discourse ethics, and postmodern ethics.
✔ Pluralism: A mix of theories provides the best ethical framework.