Study Notes on U.S. Military and Cold War Events

Overview of U.S. Military Establishment Prior to World War II

Before World War II, the United States maintained a small army and navy.
Lack of large permanent military establishments created challenges in swiftly ramping up military capabilities once the war commenced.
Significant retooling of industrial capabilities was necessary:
- Factories transitioned from automotive production to military aircraft manufacturing.
- Shipyards expanded output to meet naval needs.
The time required for these changes highlighted the limitations of the U.S. military preparedness at the onset of global conflict.

NSC 68 emerged as a pivotal proposition in response to global military threats, focusing on the Soviet Union and communism.
Key points of NSC 68:
- Emphasized the necessity for rapid and sustained buildup of military, political, and economic strength globally, termed as the “free world.”
- Aimed to counter and deter Soviet expansionism, thereby demonstrating resolve and capability.

Post-World War II era saw a significant increase in U.S. military spending post-1950,
- The government initiated the development of military infrastructures such as:
- Shipyards
- Factories
- Airfields
- Missile silos
The urgency for military enhancement was compounded by events such as the Korean War.

Korea was divided into North and South after World War II, with opposing economic and political systems:
- North Korea: Communist regime supported by the Soviet Union.
- South Korea: Anti-communist regime.
North Korea launched a surprise military attack on South Korea in 1950, leading to a military crisis.

The United States intervened militarily to prevent South Korea's collapse, deploying troops from bases in Japan.
After obtaining UN authorization, U.S. forces executed an amphibious landing at Incheon:
- This maneuver successfully broke North Korean lines and shifted the war's momentum.
- The U.S. military advanced toward North Korea's borders, nearing the Yalu River, triggering Chinese intervention.

After significant U.S. advances in North Korea, China, under Mao Zedong, dispatched troops to support North Korea:
- The intervention included approximately one million Chinese soldiers, overwhelming U.S. forces.
- U.S. troops faced a brutal retreat during severe winter conditions, leading to disastrous equipment malfunctions.

General MacArthur, a prominent World War II figure, sought to escalate military actions against China:
- Proposed the use of nuclear weapons against Chinese targets but was dismissed by President Truman due to humanitarian concerns.
- This disagreement led to MacArthur's dismissal, highlighting political tensions in the U.S. regarding communist threats.

The Korean War reached a stalemate, culminating in a ceasefire agreement in 1953, without a formal peace treaty.
Military divisions established the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) that persists as a buffer between North and South Korea.
- This conflict solidified perceptions of communist aggression, establishing a precedent for U.S. foreign policy.

The early Cold War period was marked by intense fears of communist expansion, both internationally and domestically:
- Notable events include the fall of China to communism (1949) and crises in Berlin (1948) and Korea (1950).
- The U.S. grappled with questions of loyalty and espionage within its own borders.

High-profile cases, such as the Rosenberg trial, indicated fears of espionage within the atomic program:
- Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted, sparking intense public debate around loyalty and treason.
The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) investigated allegations of communist influence in various sectors, including:
- The film industry and academia.
- Allegations led to blacklisting and career destruction for many accused individuals, including actors and directors.

Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited fears of communism to build political career:
- His tactics included unsubstantiated accusations against government officials and public figures.
He infamously claimed to possess lists of communists within the government without credible evidence.
This era of McCarthyism put social pressure on individuals and tarnished reputations based on dubious allegations of collaboration with communism.

Complicated international relations arose with cases like the connection between American involvement in Cuba and the rise of communist regimes:
- Discovery of Cuba's alignment with the Soviet Union further solidified U.S. fears of encroaching communism in Latin America.
- Past failed U.S. attempts to depose Fidel Castro, including the Bay of Pigs invasion, led to increased tensions and active participation of the USSR in Cuba.

President John F. Kennedy confronted a major Cold War crisis following the establishment of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba.

In 1959, Fidel Castro led a successful communist revolution in Cuba, prompting a significant exodus of Cuban exiles to the U.S., particularly in Florida.
Failed attempts, such as the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, heightened tensions between the U.S. and communist Cuba.

Discovery of Soviet missiles in Cuba led to panic within the U.S. government:
- The escalation of military options included potential invasion, counter-strategies, or nuclear engagement.
- The risk of mutual destruction loomed large with potential for miscalculation leading to nuclear war.

Kennedy ultimately opted for a naval quarantine rather than an invasion, aiming to prevent further missile supplies to Cuba.
After intense negotiations, a resolution was reached:
- Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles from Cuba in exchange for U.S. non-invasion of Cuba.
- Additionally, U.S. nuclear missiles in Turkey were withdrawn after the crisis, illustrating the intense diplomatic maneuvers of the period.