Key Terms
Module 4 - Key Terms & Definitions
Attention – The process of focusing mental resources on specific information while ignoring other information.
Selective Attention – The ability to focus on one task or event while filtering out distractions.
Dichotic Listening Task – A method used to study attention where different messages are played in each ear.
Cocktail Party Effect – The ability to focus on a conversation while still detecting personally relevant stimuli like one's name.
Broadbent’s Filter Theory – An early selection model stating that attention filters information based on physical characteristics before processing meaning.
Treisman’s Attenuation Theory – Suggests that unattended information is weakened but still processed for meaning if relevant.
Late-Selection Theory (Deutsch & Deutsch) – Proposes that all information is processed for meaning before selective attention occurs.
Kahneman’s Capacity Model of Attention – Suggests that attention is a limited resource allocated based on task complexity and personal interest.
Automatic Processing – Cognitive tasks performed with little or no effort due to practice.
Controlled Processing – Effortful cognitive tasks requiring attention and mental resources.
Stroop Effect – Demonstrates automaticity of reading where naming ink color of incongruent words is difficult.
Divided Attention – The ability to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, depending on automaticity and resource demands.
Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) – The delay in response when two tasks require attention simultaneously.
Spatial Attention – Focusing attention on a specific location to enhance perception.
Feature Integration Theory (Treisman) – Suggests object perception occurs in two stages: preattentive and focused attention.
Inattentional Blindness – Failing to perceive a visible stimulus when attention is directed elsewhere.
Change Blindness – The failure to detect large changes in a visual scene when disrupted.
Hemineglect (Sensory Neglect) – A disorder caused by parietal lobe damage leading to ignoring one side of the visual field.
Event-Related Potentials (ERP) – EEG recordings used to study how attention affects neural processing.
Module 5 - Key Terms & Definitions
Encoding – The process of converting information into a form that can be stored and retrieved later.
Storage – The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval – Accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.
Forgetting – The failure to retrieve information from memory, which can be due to decay, interference, or retrieval failure.
Atkinson & Shiffrin Modal Model – A model proposing three stages of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
Sensory Memory – The very brief storage of sensory information before it is processed further.
Iconic Memory – A form of sensory memory that retains visual information for a fraction of a second.
Echoic Memory – A form of sensory memory that retains auditory information for several seconds.
Short-Term Memory (STM) – A memory system that holds information for about 20-30 seconds unless actively rehearsed.
Working Memory – A system that involves active processing and manipulation of information in short-term storage.
Chunking – A strategy to improve STM capacity by grouping information into meaningful units.
Serial Position Effect – The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.
Primacy Effect – Better recall for items presented at the beginning of a list due to long-term storage.
Recency Effect – Better recall for items at the end of a list due to short-term memory.
Proactive Interference – When old information interferes with the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference – When new information disrupts the recall of old information.
Retrieval Cues – Stimuli that help in accessing stored memories.
Encoding Specificity Principle – The idea that memory is best retrieved in the context it was learned.
Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve – A graph showing that memory loss is rapid at first but slows over time.
Rehearsal – The process of actively repeating or thinking about information to extend its duration in memory.
Maintenance Rehearsal – Repeating information in its original form to keep it in short-term memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal – Associating new information with existing knowledge to enhance long-term storage.
Semantic Memory – A type of long-term memory that stores general knowledge and facts.
Episodic Memory – A type of long-term memory that stores personal experiences and events.
Procedural Memory – A type of implicit memory that stores skills and habits.
Implicit Memory – Unconscious memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness.
Explicit Memory – Conscious recollection of factual information or events.
Retrieval Failure – The inability to access stored memories due to missing retrieval cues.
Decay Theory – The hypothesis that memory fades over time if not used.
Interference Theory – The idea that competing memories cause forgetting
Module 6 - Key Terms & Definitions
Levels-of-Processing Theory – A model suggesting that memory retention depends on the depth of cognitive processing, with deeper, more meaningful processing leading to better recall.
Incidental Learning – Learning that occurs without deliberate intention, often studied to understand unconscious memory retention.
Semantic Processing – A deep level of processing that involves encoding the meaning of information, leading to stronger and longer-lasting memory.
Acoustic Processing – An intermediate level of processing focused on encoding information based on sound or phonetics.
Physical Processing – A shallow level of processing that involves encoding information based on its visual or structural features.
Elaborative Encoding – A method of memory enhancement that involves making meaningful associations between new information and existing knowledge.
Reconstructive Memory – The theory that memories are actively reconstructed rather than simply retrieved, leading to potential distortions.
Schema – A mental framework or structure that helps organize and interpret information, influencing how memories are encoded and retrieved.
Autobiographical Memory – Memory for personal life events and experiences that contribute to an individual’s sense of self.
Flashbulb Memory – Exceptionally vivid and detailed memories of significant emotional events, though often subject to inaccuracy.
Eyewitness Testimony – The recall of events by witnesses, which can be highly unreliable due to memory distortion and external influences.
Memory Distortion – The alteration or modification of memories due to suggestion, misinformation, or personal biases.
False Memories – The phenomenon of recalling events that never actually occurred, often due to suggestion or confabulation.
Misinformation Effect – A form of memory distortion where post-event information alters the memory of the original event.
Source Monitoring Error – A memory error in which a person misattributes the origin of a memory, confusing real and imagined events.
Amnesia – A condition involving partial or complete memory loss, typically resulting from brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma.
Anterograde Amnesia – A type of amnesia characterized by the inability to form new long-term memories following brain injury.
Retrograde Amnesia – A condition where an individual loses memories from before the onset of amnesia, often affecting recent memories more.
Hippocampus – A critical brain structure involved in the consolidation of long-term memories and spatial navigation.
Encoding Specificity Principle – The theory that memory retrieval is most effective when conditions at recall match those at encoding.
Retrieval Cues – Stimuli that facilitate the recall of stored information by triggering associated memories.
Semantic Memory – A form of long-term memory responsible for storing general knowledge, concepts, and facts.
Episodic Memory – A type of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific personal events and experiences.
Procedural Memory – A form of implicit memory that enables the recall of motor skills and habitual actions, such as riding a bike.
Priming – An unconscious process where prior exposure to a stimulus influences response to a related stimulus later.
Consolidation – The process by which short-term memories become stabilized and stored in long-term memory, often requiring sleep and repetition.
Retrieval Failure – The inability to access stored information due to the absence of appropriate retrieval cues or interference from other memories.
Interference Theory – The concept that forgetting occurs due to competing information, categorized into proactive and retroactive interference.
Proactive Interference – A type of interference where older memories disrupt the ability to learn and remember new information.
Retroactive Interference – A type of interference where newly acquired information hinders the recall of previously learned material.
Chunking – A cognitive strategy that enhances memory capacity by grouping related information into meaningful units.
Retrieval Practice – A learning technique that strengthens memory by actively recalling information rather than simply re-reading it.
Dual-Coding Theory – A theory suggesting that memory is enhanced when information is encoded using both verbal and visual formats.
Mnemonics – Memory aids, such as acronyms or visualization techniques, that facilitate information retention and retrieval.
Context-Dependent Memory – The phenomenon where recall is improved when the retrieval environment is similar to the encoding environment.
State-Dependent Memory – The concept that memory recall is more effective when an individual's physiological or emotional state is similar to when the memory was encoded.
Serial Position Effect – The tendency to better remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list.
Self-Reference Effect – The tendency to remember information better when it is personally relevant or connected to oneself.