America on the World Stage: From Imperialism to World War I Study Guide

Foundations of American Imperialism and Territorial Expansion

• The United States underwent a significant period of expansion, increasing its area to approximately $3,744,000\text{ square miles}$ through various territorial acquisitions.

• Territorial Acquisitions Detail:

  • The Hawaiian Islands: Comprising $6,500\text{ square miles}$, Hawaii was previously an independent country. It was annexed by the United States Congress in $1898$.

  • Spanish Cessions: Following the conflict with Spain in $1898$, the U.S. obtained Porto Rico (Puerto Rico), Guam, and the Philippines, totaling $119,000\text{ square miles}$.

  • Samoan Islands: Including Tutuila, Manua, and other small islands, this acquisition totaled $77\text{ square miles}$. Claims began after $1878$ and were confirmed via treaty with Germany and Great Britain in $1899$.

  • Small Pacific Islands: Minor islands including Wake, Baker, Howland, Midway, and others were discovered earlier but were formally recognized as U.S. territory in $1898$.

  • Virgin Islands: St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix, totaling $138\text{ square miles}$, were purchased from Denmark for use by the U.S. in $1917$.

The Acquisition of Alaska

• William Seward: Served as the Secretary of State under President Abraham Lincoln and was a prominent advocate for American expansion.

• The Purchase: In $1867$, Seward arranged for the United States to purchase Alaska from Russia for the sum of $7.2\text{ million}$.

• Economic Justification: At a cost of approximately $.02\text{ per acre}$, Alaska provided the U.S. with vast resources, including timber, minerals, and oil.

• Public Perception: At the time, the purchase was mocked and referred to as "Seward’s Folly."

• Statehood: Alaska eventually became the $49th$ state in $1959$.

The History and Annexation of Hawaii

• Early European Contact: In $1778$, explorer James Cook became the first white man to reach Hawaii, sparking international interest in Hawaii's natural resources and strategic influence.

• Unification of the Kingdom: In $1798$, the smaller kingdoms of the islands were united under King Kamehameha the Great. This central monarchy governed for nearly $100\text{ years}$.

• American Business Interests:

  • Hawaii opened tax-free trade with the U.S. to stimulate its economy.

  • This invited white American businessmen who opened factories and sold natural resources.

  • These businessmen gradually seized political control.

• Constitutional Crisis: King Kalakaua was forced under duress (force) to sign a new Constitution. This document stripped the Hawaiian people of their voting rights and power, representing the first major step toward ending the monarchy.

• Queen Lili’uokalani: She was the last reigning queen of Hawaii. In $1895$, she was pressured to abdicate (give up) her throne, effectively ending the monarchy and ceding control to American businessmen.

• The Republic and Annexation: Following the monarchy, the Republic of Hawaii was formed, led by American businessman Sanford Dole. Businessman pushed for full annexation as a U.S. territory.

• Official Status: Hawaii became an official U.S. territory in $1900$ under President William McKinley. It was admitted as the $50th$ state in August of $1959$.

Yellow Journalism and Media Influence on Policy

• Definition of Yellow Journalism: A style of news coverage that is highly sensationalized and exaggerated. It prioritizes selling newspapers over reporting factual information.

• Key Figures: The era was defined by a fierce competition between Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst.

• Modern Connection: Yellow journalism is seen as a precursor to modern "fake news" and the visual elements used in social media today.

• Media Impact Case Study (Iraq War $2003$):

  • A study by Steve Randall and Tara Broughel analyzed U.S. media sources regarding the Iraq War.

  • Pro-War Sources: Accounted for $71\%\text{ of American sources}$ and $64\%\text{ of total sources}$.

  • Anti-War Sources: Accounted for only $3\%\text{ of American sources}$ and $10\%\text{ of total sources}$.

  • Neutral Sources: Accounted for $26\%\text{ of American sources}$ and $26\%\text{ of total sources}$.

The Spanish-American War ($1898$)

• Background in Cuba: Cuba was a Spanish colony where rebels fought for independence. Spain was perceived as brutal in its repression of the rebellion.

• U.S. Motivation: The U.S. had significant business interests in Cuba. President McKinley sent the warship USS Maine to Cuba to either protect businesses, prepare for war, or intimidate Spain.

• The Sinking of the Maine: On February $15$, $1898$, the Maine exploded. Although causes were debated, the media and public opinion blamed Spain.

• "Awake United States" (Song Lyrics): "Eagle soar on high, and sound the battle cry! / And how proudly sailed the warship Maine, / A Nation’s pride, without a stain! / A wreck she lies, her sailors slain. / By two-faced butchers, paid by Spain!"

• Declaration of War: Spain severed diplomatic ties on April $21$, $1898$. The U.S. initiated a naval blockade, and Congress formally declared war on April $25$, $1898$.

• The Teller Amendment: Attached to the war declaration, it stated that the U.S. disclaimed any intention to exercise sovereignty or control over Cuba; the U.S. agreed to help Cuba gain independence and promised not to annex it after the war.

• The Conflict:

  • Caribbean: Teddy Roosevelt, former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, led the "Rough Riders" (a cavalry unit of cowboys, athletes, and miners) in Cuba.

  • Pacific: The Philippines (a Spanish colony) saw the war as a path to independence. The U.S. won a decisive naval victory at the Battle of Manila on August $13$, $1898$.

• Treaty of Paris: Signed after $10\text{ weeks}$ of fighting. Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the U.S. and sold the Philippines to the U.S. for $\$20\text{ million}$.

• Post-War Negotiations: Cubans were allowed to attend the negotiations only as a courtesy and had no say in the division of land or resources. Filipinos were excluded entirely.

The Philippine-American War and The Guano Act

• Philippine-American War ($1899$-$1902$):

  • Filipino nationalists fought against U.S. control using guerrilla warfare (ambushes and small-scale attacks).

  • The conflict was brutal: the U.S. utilized scorched-earth tactics, concentration camps, and torture.

  • Approximately $200,000\text{ Filipino civilians}$ died due to disease, food shortages, and mistreatment.

  • The U.S. controlled the Filipino government until independence was granted in $1946$.

• The Guano Act: This act allowed any American citizen to claim an uninhabited island as U.S. territory if it contained bird or bat excrement (guano). Guano was highly valued as a fertilizer before the invention of artificial alternatives.

United States Involvement in World War I

• The Power Blocs:

  • Central Powers: Austria-Hungary, Germany, Ottoman Empire.

  • Allied Powers: Great Britain, France, Russian Empire.

• Initial Neutrality: The U.S. officially declared neutrality on August $4$, $1914$, maintaining trade with both Great Britain and Germany.

• Submarine Warfare: Germany implemented "unrestricted submarine warfare" using U-boats to attack military, passenger, and trade ships around the United Kingdom to break the trench warfare stalemate.

• The Sinking of the Lusitania: On May $17$, $1915$, a German U-boat sank the British liner, killing $128\text{ Americans}$. President Wilson stated the U.S. was "too proud to fight" but warned Germany to cease attacks on civilians.

• The Zimmerman Telegram: In January $1917$, German Minister Arthur Zimmerman sent a coded message to Mexico proposing an alliance to conquer U.S. territory. British intelligence decoded it, and Wilson released it to the public.

• Declaration of War: On April $6$, $1917$, the U.S. declared war on Germany due to resumed unrestricted submarine warfare.

The WWI Homefront and Civil Liberties

• The Selective Service Act: Passed in May $1917$ to raise a large army. It resulted in the drafting of $2.8\text{ million men}$.

• Opposition and Protests: Socialists and anarchists protested the draft as unconstitutional. Activist Eugene Debs was arrested for protesting and ran for president from prison.

• Economic Mobilization: Factories shifted to produce munitions (war supplies). Workers in essential munitions jobs were exempt from the draft.

• Women in the Workforce: Women took over factory and farm jobs traditionally held by men, shifting the domestic image of labor and gender roles.

• Propaganda Categories:

  • $1$: Encouraging men to enlist.

  • $2$: Guiding actions on the homefront (resource conservation, etc.).

  • $3$: Demonizing the enemy.

• Espionage and Sedition Acts: Passed by Wilson to ensure patriotism, these acts banned criticism of the government or the war effort.

• Schenck v. United States Doctrine: The Supreme Court ruled that free speech could be legally limited if it presents a "Clear and Present Danger" to the nation.

• Troop Deployment: The American Expeditionary Force reached France in April $1818$. By November $1818$, over $10,000\text{ soldiers}$ arrived daily, proving essential to the final Allied offensives.

Questions & Discussion

• Why do you think the map of "Greater America" is centered on the Pacific Ocean? This centers the new acquisitions like Hawaii, the Philippines, and Guam as central to the American sphere of influence.

• Can we corroborate the reasons for the annexation of Hawaii? Students are asked to look for multiple documents supporting specific motivations (economic, strategic, or political).

• How does yellow journalism connect to "fake news"? Both prioritize emotional reaction and engagement over factual nuances, often using sensational headlines to drive public opinion.

• What was the perspective of the "Puck" cartoon regarding "The Duty of the Hour"? The cartoon illustrates the U.S. "saving" Cuba from both Spanish misrule and potential internal anarchy.

• What are the four MAIN causes of WWI? Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism.

• What is a "trigger" vs. a "cause"? The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand is the trigger, while the MAIN factors are the underlying causes.