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LADIES FIRST: RACE, CLASS, AND THE CONTRADICTIONS OF A POWERFUL FEMININITY

Author

Kristen Myers, Department of Sociology, Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, Illinois, USA

Abstract

This article explores one version of femininity—ladyhood—and the ways it is influenced by various forms of oppression including racism, classism, heterosexism, and sexism. It argues that women may enact ladyhood in pursuit of a so-called "powerful femininity." The data derives from an ethnography of an elite, interracial women’s social change organization, revealing how enforcing ladyhood can reproduce subordination among women while presenting an illusion of power. The article contextualizes the organization’s practices within historical frameworks of oppression.

Introduction
  • **Scope of Femininity in Literature: ** Femininity is often overlooked in gender studies, typically characterized as a collection of traits devalued by societal power structures.
  • When femininity is analyzed, it is often framed as the antithesis of masculinity.
  • Paucity of Literature: The lack of emphasis on femininity is connected to feminist theories suggesting that masculinity and femininity are outdated constructs hindering social justice.
  • Masculinity Studies: Research has illustrated how masculinity perpetuates gender inequality and serves as a complex social process with real implications.
  • I argue that femininity warrants similar scrutiny to understand the dynamics of gender inequality.
Analyzing Femininity
  • This work follows West and Zimmerman’s (1987) concept of "doing gender," suggesting femininity is both a structural constraint and an enacted action.
  • Femininity shapes behaviors and opportunities for women depending on cultural and political contexts.
  • Focus on Ladyhood: This article examines ladyhood, a construct primarily among wealthy, heterosexual, White women. Ladyhood is presented both as a socially devalued form of femininity and as a “powerful femininity,” articulating its potential to highlight and perpetuate social inequalities among women.
Literature on Ladyhood
  • Definition of a Lady: A lady is defined variously as submissive, domestic, pious, pure, illogical, dependent, but also as possessing authority and charm.
  • Cultural Constructs: The construction of ladyhood serves to pacify women for their oppression by reinforcing the belief in female weakness as a virtue.
Power Dynamics
  • Smith’s Definition of Power: Power is the capacity to exclude or deny access to resources based on established hierarchies of gender, race, class, and sexuality.
  • Collins' Matrix of Domination highlights that power operates differently across intersecting categories, revealing how social structures inhibit certain groups while privileging others.
  • Gender inequality can emerge not only from systemic structures but also from individual actions, particularly when individuals enact existing gender norms.
Institutional and Individual Power Relations
  • Institutional manifestations of gendered power are evident in various societal arenas (workforce, family, education).
  • Gender inequality is perpetuated as individuals, including those with lesser institutional power, reinforce existing structures unintentionally.
  • Conceptual Roots of Ladyhood: Male dominance is reinforced through the glorification of emphasized femininity, asserting women's roles primarily as subservient to men.
The Historical Context of Ladyhood
  • Industrialization and Ladyhood: Lerner (1972, 1979) emphasized that ladyhood arose as a controlling construct during industrialization, economically empowering White women while furthering inequalities.
  • Social Housekeeping: Through charity and caring roles, women further propagate economic and racial inequalities under the guise of moral and social responsibility.
The Racial and Class Dimensions of Ladyhood
  • Ladyhood has historically excluded women of color, particularly African American women, from its benefits and recognition.
  • African American women’s participation in club movements and social housekeeping reflected a different experience of ladyhood influenced by racial dynamics.
  • The historical enactment of ladyhood also served to illustrate racial distinctions, making the identity inaccessible to many women of color while perpetuating existing hierarchies.
Ethnography: Women Against Violence (WAV)
  • Organization Overview: WAV began in the late 1960s with half its members being African American and half being White; their aim was to address violence in their community.
  • Membership Composition: Founding members were wealthy, often married to influential men; their social networks strengthened their community actions.
Research Methodology
  • Data collection involved participant observation, archival analysis, and in-depth interviews between 1992 and 1996 within WAV.
  • The research acknowledges the researcher’s positionality and the reflexive nature of the research experience to capture the diverse perspectives of WAV members.
The Practice of Ladyhood in WAV
  • Discrepancy Between Mission and Practice: Initially, WAV had a radical social movement orientation; however, it gradually transformed into a bureaucratic entity leaning away from political activism.
  • Members resisted making political statements, fostering a culture of passivity despite their organizational goals.
Constructing Organizational Meanings and "Woman Power"
  • WAV's identity was rooted in the belief that women had a unique capacity to de-escalate violence, tapping into the notion of woman power.
  • Participation in Public Discourse: Despite potential for activism, WAV members shied away from political positions due to fears of offending community sensitivities, thus preserving their status at the cost of social change.
Dichotomy of Gender in Organizational Behavior
  • The board members perpetuated gendered dichotomies, viewing women's detail-oriented nature as both a strength and a hindrance in accomplishing organizational goals.
  • Members constructed narratives around their practices that reinforced traditional gender roles while failing to challenge systemic barriers.
Power Structures and Social Exchange
  • Navigating Relationships: Leadership dynamics within WAV illustrated tensions between old and new board members, as younger generations began to challenge the established norms of ladyhood.
  • Legacy of Exclusion: The search for recognition in a patriarchal society led members to enforce rigid standards of behavior and appearance, solidifying boundaries of who qualified as a lady.
Discussion
  • The paradox of ladyhood demonstrates the processes through which some women can attain status even while reinforcing systems of oppression against one another.
  • WAV members’ practices reflected broader societal inequalities, illustrating connections between race, class, and gender.
Conclusion
  • Final Reflections: Women may support and embrace ladyhood, which legitimizes their subordination while paradoxically giving them power in specific contexts. This study contributes to understanding femininity as a social force influencing inequality in society.
References

The document concludes with a comprehensive bibliography of references cited, reinforcing the academic rigor of the research.