Booklet notes Eisenhower

Civil Rights

Key events

Brown V Board of education 1954: A unanimous decision was made by the supreme court that separate but equal, the guideline set by Plessy V Ferguson 1896 had no place in education and was unconstitutional. The ruling had a huge impact, signalling the end of de jure segregation and encouraged the NAACP to launch more campaigns. 70% of school desegregated in 12 months in border states. However, it gave no timeframe and did nothing about de facto segregation. It also led to racist groups forming including the white citizens council and the southern manifesto.

The murder of Emmet Till 1955: Emmet lived in the North but was visiting family in the south where he was brutally murdered by two white men. His mother, Mamie Till chose to have an open casket funeral to display the violence inflicted on her 14yr old son. This drew huge media attention and impacted many, including Rosa Parks, encouraging further activism.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56: Rosa Parks had refused to give up her seat for a white man on a bus in Alabama, and was arrested. this led to a city wide bus boycott, the first example of an economic boycott. The boycott was successful, the city lost $1 mil, and the supreme court ruled in Browder V Gayle that the segregation laws in Montgomery were unconstitutional. This event was a key moment in civil rights history as it solidified Martin Luther King JR as leader of the civil rights movement, and demonstrated the influence of the church

The Little Rock Crisis 1957: Governor Orval Faubus (Arkansas) set up state sovereignty commission to resist desegregation/ disrupt the civil rights movement. He surrounded the high school with national guardsmen who were instructed to keep the 9 black students out. (Sept 2nd) Later, Eisenhower met with Faubus who seemed to agree to follow the ruling.(Sept 14th) However, less that two weeks later, the 9 were forced to leave the school (Sept 23rd) The next day, Eisenhower passed executive order 10730, ordering 1,200 paratroopers and 10,000 national guardsmen back to the school to protect the 9. The next day, the 9 attend school, but it was two months until the paratroopers left, and 9 months until the Guardsmen left.

The student sit ins 1960: See Kennedy notes

Timeline

June 5 1950 - McLaurin V Oklahoma State Regents, Sweatt V Painter, Henderson V United States

Jan 1953 - Eisenhower elected as president

June 1953 Baton Rouge bus boycott

Sept 1953 - Appointment of Earl Warren ( former governor of California)

May 1954 - Brown ruling

July 11 1954 - First White citizens council meeting

1954 - KKK re-established

August 1955 - Murder of Emmett Till

Dec 1 1955 - Montgomery bus boycott begins

Dec 5 1955 - The Montgomery Improvement Association elects MLK as president

Feb 1956 - University of Alabama admits Autherine Lucy and expels her

Feb 1956 - Massive resistance campaign led by senator Bryd

Feb-March 1956 - Southern manifesto signed by 101 southern politicians

Nov 1956 - Browder V Gayle: bus segregation is unconstitutional

Nov 1956 - Eisenhower is elected for a second term

December 1956 - Montgomery bus boycott ends

Jan 1957 - MLK helps found the SCLC

1957 - MLK organises a prayer pilgrimage in Washington

1957 - Strom Thurmond filibustered against the civil rights bill for 24 hours

Sept 1957 - Little rock 9 crisis

Sept 1957 - Civil rights act passed

1958 - Cooper V Aaron: any law trying to keep public schools desegregated was unconstitutional

1959 - The hate that hate produced

Feb 1960 - Student sit ins

April 1960 - SNCC formed

May 1960 - 2nd civil rights act

Summary

Domestic policy

Growth of American industries

• GNP (gross national product) rose from $355.3 billion 1950 to $ 487.76 in 1960

• By 1960, median family income was $5620 giving a family 30% more purchasing power than in 1950

• 1953-7 cost of living rose 2.8% but factory wages rose 8.6%

• Per capita income rose from $1720 in 1940 to $2699 in 1960

• Economy grew by 37% during the 50s

• $40 billion spent on the military budget

  Reasons why

• The USA hadn’t suffered wartime damage so was in a better state than rivals

• The USA had cheap oil, benefitting industry and transport

• USA invested in research leading to scientific and technological developments, increasing industry productivity- particularly consumer goods

• The baby boom encouraged the purchasing of homes and children’s clothes and toys. In 1950 the population was 151.7 million; by 1960 it had increased to 180.7 million so the workforce increased

• The advertising industry encouraged consumers purchasing desires, TV sales increased from 6 billion in 1950 to 13 billion 1963

• Cheap credit, and the increase in private debt stimulated the economy and created manufacturing jobs. The first credit card from the diners club was introduced in 1950 followed by American express in 1958. Private debt grew from 104.8 billion to 263.3 billion in the 50s-60s

Construction:

• 13 million new homes were built between 1948-58, 11 million of these were in the suburbs

• The Levitt brothers were the most famous suburban builders, their homes costing around $8000 and were spacious with central heating, and modern bathrooms

• The first levittown was built on long island in 1947. It had 80,000 residents, 9 swimming pools, 7 village greens and shopping centres

Cars:

• 1955 7.9 million cars were manufactured

• during the 50s an average of 4.5 million cars were scrapped each year

Service industries:

• Growing car usage led to an increase in motels, fast food outlets and out of town shopping malls

• This led to an increase in service workers e.g. waitresses and petrol station attendants

• The proportion of industrial workers fell from 39% to 36% during the 50s due to growing automation in traditional heavy industries

• The economy became more dependent on service workers and office work than heavy manual labour in factories and mines

In what ways did consumer society change lives

Positives of consumer society:

• Many Americans were able to buy cars, washing machines, freezers dishwashers or basically any item that gave freedom or saved time

• By 1960 50% of Americans owned cars and 90% of American homes had at least one TV (the favourite leisure occupation for 50% of Americans)

Negatives of a consumer society

• Popularity of entertainment and sport on TV led to a decline in cinema attendance

• ¼ still lived in poverty

• Undermined American values of hard work

How and why did the McCarthyite hysteria end

Timeline:

1946: Joseph McCarthy became senator for Wisconsin. His campaign was successful because he lied about his war record

1949: a poll of Washington correspondents declared McCarthy to be the worst US senator

1949: China falls & soviets test their first atomic bomb

1950: Senator McCarthy claimed he could identify card carrying communists in the state dept

1952: McCarthy headed congressional committees that investigated communist subversives in the US

1953: Eisenhower was inaugurated

1953: The media, entertainment industries, colleges, university, state, and federal government depts were all being investigated

1953: a poll showed 50% of Americans admired McCarthy and 62% of republicans did

1954; April- June McCarthy held televised hearings on communism in the army (LBJ arranged for the hearings to be televised, making McCarthy seem like a bully with little evidence)

1954: Eisenhower removed McCarthy’s ability to subpoena witnesses and access government records

1955: March the senate censured McCarthy (and expression of strong disapproval or harsh criticism for unbecoming conduct

1957: McCarthy died of alcoholism

Why didn’t Eisenhower formally charge McCarthy at the start of his presidency

• McCarthy had popular support within the republican party and with the public

• Eisenhower believed McCarthy would ultimately destroy himself

• Direct confrontation would weaken prestige

Eisenhower’s Domestic achievements and failings

Foreign policy

How successful were Eisenhower’s attempts to contain communism in the west

Key principles:

1. Western Europe mustn’t fall to communism

2. The soviets must not be allowed to take control of the middle east as half the worlds oil was located there

3. Domino theory

4. Reduce defence spending & avoid military industrial complex

5. End the arms race

6. Improve relations

7. Avoid war

How successful were Eisenhower’s attempts to contain communism in Asia

General Aims

• End the war in Korea

• Contain communism

• Prevent domino theory

July 1953: Eisenhower ends the war in Korea using brinkmanship tactics

April 1954: Eisenhower explains his domino theory

1954: Geneva conference. Agreed Vietnam would be temporarily divided into north and south, the French would exit, nationwide elections would be held and Vietnam would be reunited 1956

1954: Eisenhower doesn’t sign and sets up a new state of south Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem

1954: SEATO established- Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, UK and USA

Sept 1954: the Chinese bombard the islands of Quemoy and Matsu near Taiwan controlled by the former nationalist leader. Eisenhower committed to US defence of Taiwan

1955: Eisenhower asks congress for authorisation to act in defence of Taiwan and closely related localities- formosa resolution

1956: free elections not held for fear of a communist leader being elected

How successful was Eisenhower’s foreign policy in the middle east

Timeline:

1951: Iran’s democratically elected prime minister Mohammed Mossadegh seized the British owned Anglo-Persian oil company. British and American oil companies as well as the CIA suggested Iran may turn communist

1953: Eisenhower used the CIA to encourage an Iranian coup. This restored power to the pro American Shah who gave US companies 40% of Iranian oil.

1955: Dulles, secretary of state created CENTO made up of Iran, Iraq, UK, Pakistan and Türkiye

Oct 1956: Suez crisis. The Tripartite Action took place whereby Israel attacked Egypt and took the Sinai desert and Britain and France moved in to take the Suez canal. The global criticism was intense. Eisenhower applied pressure by forcing Britain and France to withdraw, receiving international acclaim

1957: Eisenhower addressed congress on the middle east, issuing the Eisenhower doctrine which committed the US to assist any nation requesting assistance against armed aggression from any country controlled by international communism. Congress agreed to provide $200 million to fund such aid

1958: The Lebanese govt asked for aid.

Suez crisis:

•In 1858, the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company was formed and given the right to construct the canal and operate it for 99 years, after which time, the Egyptian government would take over control of the canal. At its founding, the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company was owned by French and Egyptian interests.  In 1875, debt forced Egypt to sell its shares in the Canal to the British.

•July 1956 Whilst Eisenhower was hospitalised, Dulles withdrew an aid offer that Eisenhower had promised Egypt’s’ leader Colonel Nasser. It was to help build the Aswan Dam.   The aid offer was withdrawn because Nasser had bought Soviet arms via the Czechs, had recognised China and seemed to be trying to create a neutral bloc in the Cold War. 

•Nasser subsequently nationalised the Anglo French owned Suez Canal.  The British asked Eisenhower for military support against Nasser.   He said no, arguing Nasser was within his rights.  Britain, France and Israel secretly prepared for military action. (Nasser was anti-Israeli)

•October 1956 The Suez Crisis (Tripartite action took place) Israel attacked Egypt and took the Sinai desert and Britain and France moved in to take the Suez Canal.  The global criticism was intense.  Eisenhower applied pressure forcing Britain and France to withdraw.  Eisenhower received international acclaim.  Eisenhower wanted to maintain good relations with Nasser even though he disliked him.

•The Soviet Union offers to back Egypt militarily, and eventually, the Suez Crisis is ended with a United Nations-negotiated cease fire.

•In November 1956, the Suez Crisis ended when the United Nations arranged a truce between the four nations. The Suez Canal then reopened in March 1957 when the sunken ships were removed.

Implementation of the Eisenhower doctrine

Jordan:

•The U.S. was concerned about the spread of communism in the Middle East, particularly after Egypt’s alignment with the Soviet Union under Gamal Abdel Nasser. King Hussein of Jordan faced domestic and regional pressures, including possible coups and the influence of Nasser’s Arab nationalism and socialism in the region.

•King Hussein sought U.S. assistance to defend his regime against possible communist or Nasserist influence and to stabilize the country.

•The U.S were worried about the reactions of Syria, Saudi Arabia and Israel triggering war so sent military aid to Jordan, including weapons and advisers, to help the King secure his regime. In addition, the U.S. also provided economic assistance to Jordan to strengthen its economy and maintain stability. The U.S felt the King’s deposition could lead to greater instability in the region.

• By the end of 1957, King Hussein’s regime was stabilised with U.S. support, preventing a communist or Nasser-backed takeover.

Syrian Crisis 1957:

Syrian Crisis of 1957 was a Cold War conflict between Syria and the Soviet Union on one side, and the United States and its allies (including Türkiye) on the other.

Key Events:
August 18, 1957: Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli appointed Colonel Afif al-Bizri as army chief, who was suspected of being a Soviet sympathiser. This raised fears of a communist takeover in Syria. Neighbouring countries like Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon considered military intervention, with Türkiye deploying troops along the Syrian border. Nikita Khrushchev threatened to attack Türkiye if it intervened, while the U.S. warned of retaliating against the Soviet Union if Türkiye was attacked.

Resolution:

By late October, Türkiye agreed to pull back its troops after U.S. pressure, and Khrushchev visited the Turkish embassy in Moscow, signalling de-escalation. The crisis highlighted the failure of the Eisenhower Doctrine, which aimed to prevent communist influence in the Middle East, as the U.S. struggled to counter Soviet support for Syria.

Lebanon 1958:

Context:

•Lebanese Muslims (swayed by the pan-Arab nationalistic ideas of Nasser) challenged the authority of President Camille Chamoun pro-American. Chamoun had tried to extend his six-year term in office by amending the constitution.

Events:

•Violence erupted in Lebanon May 1958 and the U.S provided weapons to Chamoun to suppress the rioting.

•Lebanon remained unstable and Chamoun asked for military intervention.

•Eisenhower initially did not intervene as he was concerned about diminishing the U.S position in the Middle-east. However, a coup in Iraq in July prompted Eisenhower to send military intervention to Lebanon. This led to restored stability in Lebanon and the U.S withdrew from the country in late October.