Unit 8: Modern American History Study Guide

Nixon and the Politics of the 1970s

• Nixon's Foreign Policy     * Realpolitik: A political philosophy practiced by Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger. It is based on the idea that foreign policy should be dictated by power and national interest rather than moral principles or ideology. This approach led the $U.S.$ to engage with powerful nations regardless of their internal governance.     * Détente: A French term meaning a relaxation of tensions. This policy was aimed at easing Cold War tensions between the $U.S.$, the Soviet Union, and China. Notable achievements include Nixon's $1972$ visit to China and the signing of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks ($SALT\ I$) treaty.

• The Watergate Scandal     * A major political scandal that occurred in the United States during the early $1970s$, following a break-in by $5$ men at the Democratic National Committee ($DNC$) headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, $D.C.$ on June $17$, $1972$.     * Saturday Night Massacre: A pivotal event in the Watergate scandal occurring on October $20$, $1973$. President Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire the special prosecutor, Archibald Cox. Richardson refused and resigned; the Deputy Attorney General also refused and was fired. Eventually, Solicitor General Robert Bork fired Cox. This event intensified calls for impeachment.     * Resignation: Facing certain impeachment and conviction, Richard Nixon became the first $U.S.$ President to resign from office on August $9$, $1974$.

• Economic and Industrial Challenges     * OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries): During the $1970s$, this group of oil-producing nations placed an embargo on the $U.S.$ in response to American support for Israel. This led to a massive energy crisis, long gas lines, and a spike in fuel prices.     * Stagflation: An economic phenomenon characterized by a combination of stagnant economic growth, high unemployment, and high inflation. This plagued the $U.S.$ economy throughout much of the $1970s$, defying traditional Keynesian economic theories.

The Ford and Carter Presidencies

• President Gerald Ford     * Gerald Ford assumed the presidency following Nixon's resignation. He is notable for being the only person to serve as both Vice President and President without being elected to either office by the Electoral College.     * Pardon of Nixon: One of Ford's first major acts was granting Richard Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president, a move that was highly controversial and likely cost him the $1976$ election.

• President Jimmy Carter     * Elected in $1976$, Carter focused his foreign policy on human rights. Despite successes like the Camp David Accords, his presidency faced significant domestic and international hurdles.     * New Federalism: A political philosophy of devolution, or the transfer of certain powers from the United States federal government back to the states. While started by Nixon, it continued to be a theme in the late $70s$ as a means to increase administrative efficiency.     * Iran Hostage Crisis: A diplomatic standoff between the United States and Iran. In November $1979$, Iranian students seized the $U.S.$ Embassy in Tehran and took $52$ Americans hostage for $444$ days. The crisis severely damaged Carter's reputation and ended only on the day of Ronald Reagan's inauguration in $1981$.

The 1980s: The Reagan Revolution and the End of the Cold War

• The Rise of Conservatism     * Conservative Coalition: An alliance of business leaders, middle-class voters, disaffected Democrats, and fundamentalist Christian groups that propelled Ronald Reagan to victory in $1980$.     * Moral Majority: A political organization founded by Reverend Jerry Falwell in $1979$ that mobilized evangelical Christians to support conservative politicians and policies, focusing on traditional social values.

• President Ronald Reagan     * Reaganomics: This economic policy, also known as supply-side economics, focused on three pillars: widespread tax cuts (particularly for the wealthy and corporations), deregulation of private industry, and domestic budget cuts. The goal was to stimulate investment and "trickle-down" growth.     * Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Nicknamed "Star Wars," this was a proposed missile defense system intended to protect the United States from attack by ballistic strategic nuclear weapons using ground-based and space-based systems.

• The Ending of the Cold War     * Glasnost: A Soviet policy of "openness" introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev, allowing freer discussion of social and political problems.     * Perestroika: The economic and political "restructuring" of the Soviet Union, also introduced by Gorbachev, aimed at making the Soviet system more efficient and introducing limited market reforms.     * Iran-Contra Affair: A major scandal during Reagan's second term where $U.S.$ officials secretly facilitated the sale of weapons to Iran (to help free hostages) and used the proceeds to illegally fund the Contras, a rebel group in Nicaragua.

• Social Concerns of the 80s     * The decade saw significant focus on issues such as the rise of the $AIDS$ epidemic, urban poverty, drug abuse (the "Just Say No" campaign), and ongoing racial tensions in inner cities.

The 1990s: Prosperity and Global Conflict

• The Presidency of George H.W. Bush     * Persian Gulf War: Triggered by Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August $1990$. The $U.S.$ led a coalition of $34$ nations to liberate Kuwait.     * Operation Desert Storm: The combat phase of the Persian Gulf War, beginning in January $1991$, featuring an intense air campaign followed by a ground assault that quickly defeated Iraqi forces.

• President Bill Clinton     * Clinton's Economic Policy: Focused on balancing the federal budget, which led to a budget surplus by the late $1990s$. He also signed the North American Free Trade Agreement ($NAFTA$).     * Impeachment of Bill Clinton: In $1998$, Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives on charges of perjury and obstruction of justice regarding his relationship with Monica Lewinsky. He was acquitted by the Senate in $1999$.

• Domestic Terror and Social Tragedies     * Oklahoma City Bombing: On April $19$, $1995$, a domestic terrorist bomb attack on the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building killed $168$ people. It was the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in $U.S.$ history prior to $9/11$.     * Columbine: A school shooting on April $20$, $1999$, at Columbine High School that resulted in $13$ deaths. It sparked a national debate over gun control and school safety.

• Technology and Global Interventions     * NATO interventions: Under Clinton, the $U.S.$ and $NATO$ allies intervened in the Balkans (Bosnia and Kosovo) to stop ethnic cleansing and regional instability.     * Technological Advancements: The $1990s$ saw the explosion of the World Wide Web, personal computing, and the beginnings of the digital revolution which transformed the global economy.     * Y2K: Short for Year $2000$. A widespread fear that computer systems would fail when the date rolled over from $1999$ to $2000$ because many programs represented years with only two digits.

The 2000s: Turmoil and Transformation

• President George W. Bush and the War on Terror     * 2000 Presidential Election: One of the closest in history, decided by a meager margin in Florida and eventually settled by the Supreme Court case Bush v. Gore.     * September 11th Attacks: A series of coordinated terrorist attacks by Al-Qaeda on high-profile targets in the United States, including the World Trade Center towers and the Pentagon, resulting in nearly $3,000$ deaths.     * Osama bin Laden: The founder of Al-Qaeda and the mastermind behind the $9/11$ attacks. He became the primary target of the $U.S.$ Global War on Terror.     * Iraq War: Commencing in $2003$, the $U.S.$ led a coalition to topple the regime of Saddam Hussein based on reports (later found to be inaccurate) that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction ($WMDs$).

• Economic Crisis and Political Shifts     * Great Recession: A severe global economic downturn that began in $2007$ following the collapse of the $U.S.$ housing market and a subsequent financial crisis.     * President Barack Obama: Elected in $2008$ as the first African American President. His victory was seen as a mandate for change in the wake of the Great Recession and the ongoing wars in the Middle East.     * 2008 Presidential Election: Noted for the high turnout and the shift in American demographics, as Obama defeated Senator John McCain.