Chapter 31 - Years of Crisis

31.1 - Postwar Uncertainty

• Albert Einstein, a German-born physicist, proposed radical new concepts about space, time, energy, and matter.    * Scientists discovered that light travels at the same speed regardless of the direction it goes in relation to the earth.
• Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, had concepts that were as revolutionary as Albert Einstein's. Patients with psychological issues were addressed by Sigmund Freud.    * He developed a theory on the human mind based on his experiences. Much of human behavior, he argued, is irrational or beyond explanation.   * The unconscious, he called the illogical component of the mind.
• Artists revolted against past realistic painting methods. Rather of showing accurate images of objects, they intended to express the inner realm of emotion and imagination.    * Expressionist painters such as Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky used bright colors and exaggerated or distorted forms in their work.
• The adjustments women were making in their lives reflected the autonomous spirit of the day. Women were able to take on new roles as a result of the war.   *  Their contributions to the war effort were critical in securing their right to vote.    * Women's suffrage became law in numerous nations after the war, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, and Austria.
• Electric starters, air-filled tires, and more powerful engines were among the wartime advancements and improvements that benefited the automobile.    * Cars were now sleek and brightly polished, with chrome-plated bumpers and headlights.

31.2 - A Worldwide Depression

• With the end of the war, a slew of new democracies arose. Between 1914 and 1918, Europe's last absolute kings were deposed. In 1917, Russia founded the first of the new governments.    * The Provisional Government, as it was known, aimed to provide constitutional and democratic rule to the country.    * Within months, however, it had been overthrown by a Communist government.
• Germany was also dealing with severe economic challenges that had developed during the war. Unlike the United Kingdom and France, Germany had not increased its wartime levies much.    * The Germans had simply minted money to cover their war costs. Following Germany's loss, the value of this paper money progressively declined.    * Germany printed even more money, burdened by massive reparations payments to the Allies and other economic woes.
• Wall Street in New York City was the world's financial capital in 1929. Its sidewalks were lined with banks and investment firms.    * Stock prices soared on Wall Street's New York Stock Exchange, reflecting optimism about the booming US economy.
• The economic collapse of the United States sent shockwaves around the globe. Concerned American bankers sought repayment of their international loans, while American investors pulled their money out of Europe.    * The American market for European goods shrank dramatically after the US Congress imposed hefty tariffs on imported goods in order to keep American funds in the country and pay for American goods.
• Germany and Austria were particularly heavily struck due to their war debts and reliance on American loans and investments.
• Austria's largest bank folded in 1931. Between 1929 and 1931, the value of Asian exports decreased by half, affecting both farmers and urban workers.   *  Latin America was also hit hard by the crash.
• The Great Depression wreaked havoc on the United Kingdom.
• To deal with the crisis, British people chose the National Government, a multiparty coalition.    * It imposed high tariffs as a kind of protection, raised taxes, and managed the currency.    * It also decreased lending rates in order to promote industrial development. These procedures resulted in a gradual but steady recovery.
• Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, all of which have socialist administrations, have likewise effectively weathered the economic storm.    * They based their recovery initiatives on a long heritage of community cooperation.    * Massive public works projects were funded by the Swedish government, which kept people occupied and producing.

31.3: Fascism Rises in Europe

• The failure to make significant territorial gains at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 encouraged the growth of fascism in Italy.    * Widespread social discontent was exacerbated by rising inflation and unemployment.    * An increasing number of Italians believe their democratic government is powerless to address the country's challenges.    * They desired a strong leader who would take decisive action.
• Hitler settled in Munich at the end of the war. He joined a small right-wing political organisation in 1919.    * This group agreed with him that Germany ought to reverse the Treaty of Versailles and fight communism.    * The National Socialist German Workers' Party, or Nazi for short, was the group's later moniker.
• Hitler desired control over all element of German society, not only economic and political power.    * Hitler used the press, radio, literature, painting, and film as propaganda tools to change public opinion and gain support for his leadership.    * Books that did not correspond to Nazi ideology were set ablaze in massive bonfires.
• Anti-Semitism, or hatred of Jews, was a crucial component of Nazi philosophy. Despite the fact that Jews made up less than 1% of the population, the Nazis have exploited them as scapegoats for all of Germany's problems since World War II.    * As a result, anti-Semitism erupted across Germany.

31.4: Aggressors Invade Nations

• The civilian government maintained power as long as Japan remained rich. Many Japanese, however, resented the government when the Great Depression came in 1929.    * Military commanders gathered backing and took control of the country within a short time.    * The militarists, unlike the Fascists in Europe, did not attempt to construct a new political structure.
• Manchuria, China's northeast province, had seen a lot of Japanese investment. It was an iron and coal-rich region.    * Despite the Japanese parliament's reservations, the Japanese army captured Manchuria in 1931.    * After that, the army installed a puppet government. Engineers and technicians from Japan began arriving in huge numbers to help construct mines and industries.
• A border incident four years later sparked a full-scale war between Japan and China.    * Northern China was overwhelmed by Japanese soldiers.   *  Despite possessing a million soldiers, Jiang Jieshi's army was no match for the Japanese, who were more armed and prepared.
• Ethiopia was one of three independent African countries. During the 1890s, the Ethiopians had successfully fought an Italian takeover attempt.    * In October 1935, Mussolini authorized a large invasion of Ethiopia to revenge the setback.    * Ethiopian spears and swords couldn't stand a chance against Italian bombers, tanks, cannons, and poison gas.
• Hitler had long promised to reverse the Treaty of Versailles. The pact, among other things, limited the size of Germany's army.    * The Führer declared in March 1935 that Germany would not abide by the limits. Only a moderate censure was made by the League.
• In the Spanish Civil War, Hitler and Mussolini put the European democracies to the test once more. Spain was a monarchy until 1931, when it became a republic.    * The government, which was led by liberals and socialists, was in power during a period of many difficulties.
• When Mussolini suggested a meeting of Germany, France, Britain, and Italy at Munich, Germany, they were preparing for war.    * On September 29, 1938, the Munich Conference was convened. The Czechs were not invited to the party.    * Neville Chamberlain, the British prime minister, believed that by caving in to Hitler's demands, he might keep the peace.    * Hitler was given permission by Britain and France to conquer the Sudetenland.