The Americas: Seventh Grade Social Studies Study Guide

Administrative and Submission Guidelines for The Americas Study Guide

• Student Information Required: Name, Date, and Color.
• Instructor: Mrs. Brearley.
• Course: $7\text{th}$ Grade Social Studies.
• Deadline: Friday May $29\text{th}$.
• Quiz Schedule: The quiz for this material is scheduled for Friday May $29\text{th}$.
• Submission Policy: $\text{NO LATE SUBMISSIONS WILL BE ACCEPTED!}$
• Instructions: For every term or question, provide an accurate definition and necessary examples where prompted. Answers must be derived exclusively from class notes and textbooks.
• External Source Restriction: The use of outside sources, including Wikipedia or Google, is strictly prohibited.
• Presentation: Submissions must be typed or written on a separate sheet or sheets of lined paper.

The Olmec Civilization

• Historical Timeline: This civilization flourished between the years of $1200\text{ BCE}$ and $400\text{ BCE}$.
• Economic Structure: The Olmec built an extensive, far-reaching trading empire.
• Resources: They possessed rich farming resources which they utilized for trade to acquire variety of other raw materials.

The Mayan Civilization: Geography, Education, and Agriculture

• Geographic Setting and Adaptation:     - The Mayans established their civilization in an environment characterized by sinkholes and swamps.     - These geographical features provided the population with direct access to water.     - This accessibility facilitated the easy irrigation of their crops.
• The \"Slash-and-Burn\" Farming Technique:     - The Mayans successfully survived using the \"slash-and-burn\" agricultural method for several centuries.     - The Failure of the Method: Historians believe this technique eventually backfired. As the population expanded, the overuse of this method resulted in severe deforestation, soil erosion, and comprehensive agricultural failure.
• Decline and End of the Civilization:     - The civilization reached a mysterious conclusion by the $AD 900\text{s}$.     - Theories of Decline: While no one is entirely certain of the cause, several theories exist:         - Overpopulation leading to the exhaustion of food supplies and natural resources.         - The occurrence of a prolonged drought.         - A social rebellion where the poor rose up against their wealthy leaders.

Mayan Religion and Military Conflict

• Spiritual Beliefs: The Maya believed that the gods exercised control over every single event that occurred on the earth.
• Chac: Identified as the god of rain and sunlight.
• Ritual Sacrifice: Human captives were offered as sacrifices to Chac as a means of stopping droughts.
• Objectives in Warfare:     - When marching into battle, the Maya were not primarily interested in acquiring territory.     - They sought captives more than they sought land, as these captives were necessary for religious offerings.

The Incan Empire and Incan Culture

• Empire Scale: The Incan people constructed the largest empire in the ancient Americas.
• Government and Unification: Incan rulers implemented a highly organized government and social structure designed to unite the massive empire.
• The Capital City: Their capital city was Cuzco.
• Religious Practices:     - They believed the sun god provided protection for their capital city, Cuzco.     - Sacrifice: Human sacrifices were rare and were only utilized during times of significant trouble.     - Veneration: They constructed massive works of stone to honor their deities.
• Advanced Engineering and Architecture:     - The Incan people were expert builders and skilled engineers.     - Pachacuti: Noted as the greatest Incan leader; his name means \"Earthshaker.\" He utilized a robust centralized organization to expand Incan territory and integrate diverse groups into a single empire.     - Machu Picchu: A city located high within the Andes Mountains. It remained hidden from the Spanish conquerors for centuries. The city serves as evidence of advanced engineering skills and the ability to build self-sustaining, complex communities in extreme terrains.     - Quipu: A specialized tool consisting of a rope with knotted cords used by the Inca to perform numerical calculations.

The Aztec Empire: Social Hierarchy and Spanish Conquest

• Social Class Structure:     - Top: King or Emperor.     - Second Level: Nobles.     - Third Level: Commoners (The largest group, encompassing farmers, artisans, and traders).     - Fourth Level: Unskilled laborers.     - Bottom: Enslaved people.
• Social Mobility: Upward movement in the social structure was possible only by performing $1$ act of bravery during war. The soldier, or their children if the soldier perished, would be granted land and the title of noble.
• The Conquest of the Aztecs:     - Hernan Cortes: A $19$-year-old soldier and noble who was given authority over Native American villages and their production.     - Military Tactics: Cortes invaded the Aztec territory using guns and Spanish horses to shock the native populations.     - Strategic Assistance: Cortes received help from a Maya woman who provided intelligence on how the Aztec empire functioned.     - Montezuma: The Aztec ruler. He attempted to determine the true identity and intentions of Cortes, as he may have viewed him as a figure with religious significance.     - Smallpox: The spread of \"small pox\" (or Smallpox) devastated the Aztec forces, wiping out the majority of Montezuma's army.     - Conclusion of the Empire: Cortes defeated the Aztecs, led at the time by Montezuma, and ordered the cessation of human sacrifice practices.

North American Cultures and Early Civilizations

• Hohokam Culture:     - A farming culture that flourished between approximately $AD 300$ and $AD 1300$.     - The culture reached its pinnacle at Chaco Canyon.     - Turquoise Trade: They controlled the trade of turquoise, which they used as a currency to purchase goods from various remote regions.
• Moche Civilization:     - Famous for complex irrigation systems.     - They constructed canals to transport river water from the Andes mountain ranges to their homes in the desert.
• Adobe: Defined as a sun-dried mud brick used in construction.

Spanish Explorers and South American Conquest

• Christopher Columbus: An Italian explorer who made findings in America on behalf of the Spanish crown.
• Conquistadors: The specific term for the soldier-explorers sent by Spain to the Americas.
• Francisco Pizarro and the Fall of the Inca:     - Pizarro was a Spanish official who sought to find the \"golden empire.\"     - The Capture of Atahualpa: Pizarro invited the Incan emperor Atahualpa to a meeting. Due to a \"giant ego,\" Atahualpa brought no weapons to the encounter.     - The Conflict: Pizarro commanded the emperor to renounce his gods. When Atahualpa refused, the Spanish launched an attack.     - Ransom and Outcome: Atahualpa was forced to buy his freedom. The King of Spain subsequently appointed Pizarro as the governor of Peru.