ap euro

Important Figures


Period 1(1450-1648) Renaissance - Peace of Westphalia

  • Petrarch: Father of Humanism, revived classical tests

  • Machiavelli: Author of “The Prince”, promoted secular politics

  • Erasmus: Author of “Praise in Folly” Northern Christian Humanism advocate for church reform

  • Henry XIII: Separated England from catholicism 

  • Henry IV: Edict of Nantes 1588, extent of tolerance for French Huguenots 

  • Fer. Isa: Centralizing new monarchs of Spain, complete reconquista and Columbus

  • Luther: Published 95 Theses sparking the Protestant Reformation

  • John Calvin: Advocate for Calvinism


Period 2 (1648-1815) Peace of Westphalia - Congress of Vienna 

  • James I: Divine absolutist of England

  • Charles I: Extreme divine absolutist of England, did not call Parliament for 11 years and executed for treason during English Civil War

  • Cromwell: Ruled the English Commonwealth as Lord Protector, military dictator in practice

  • Charles II: Restored Stuart Dynasty in England after the civil war

  • James II: Catholic monarch, people feared repression and repression

  • William of Orange and Mary: Glorious Revolution monarchs of England, peacefully accepted the Bill of Rights and replaced James II (1689)

  • Peter I/the Great: Westernized and militarized Russia, St. Petersburg

  • Copernicus: Theory of Revolution of Heavenly Spheres, heliocentrism theory

  • Galileo: Built off of heliocentric ideas of Copernicus, was questioned for hersey

  • Harvey: Discovered circulation of blood 

  • Bacon: Scientific observation through inquiry, observation, experiment (empiricism)

  • Descartes: Scientific reasoning through rationality and deduction, “I think therefore I am”

  • Kepler: Law that planets orbit on an ellipse

  • Newton: Physics principals of Newtonian Laws, Principia 1687

  • Hobbes: “Leviathan”, believed in strong absolute monarchy to avoid human corruption to take over

  • Montesquieu: Advocate for 3 branches of government, checks and balances 

  • Locke: Life, Liberty, Property, natural rights support by government

  • Voltaire: Advocate for religious tolerance, freedom of speech “Candide”

  • Rousseau: Believed in general will and direct democracy, “The Social Contract”

  • Wollstonecraft: Feminist, “Vindication on the Rights of Woman”

  • Adam Smith: Advocate of free market “Wealth of Nations”, lazze fairre capitalism

  • Diderot: Diderot’s Encyclopedia 1775, secularized collection of scientific knowledge 

  • Joseph II: Austrian King, freed the Surfs, Enlightened despot

  • Frederick II/The Great: Military, supported legal reform

  • Frederick William: “ Soldier King”

  • Robespierre: French Rev Radical Jacobin Dictator, reign of terror, guillotine 

  • Napoleon: Emperor of France in 1804, Napoleonic Wars and Code, preserved Enlightened idea


Period 3 (1815-1914) Congress of Vienna - WW1

  • John Stuart Mill: liberal feminist, free market, equality 

  • Emmeline Pankhurt: Leaded the British suffragette movement, created the WSPU

  • Karl Marx: “Communist Manifesto” 

  • Fredrick Engles: Worked with Marx to create Marxism Communism, and “Conditions of the Working Class in England”

  • Emile Zola: founded literary naturalism, supported Dreyfus during the Dreyfus affair 

  • Otto Von Bismark: PM of Prussia, tried unify Germany and isolated France (this eventually led to WW1), realpolitik and sparked war with France, Austria, Denmark

  • Garibaldi: Italian nationalist, led the Red Shirts leading to Italian Unification, helping Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont

  • Victor Emmanuel II: Italian king of Piedmont 

  • Cavour: PM of Sardinia, Piedmont and successfully sets up the Unification of Italy

  • Theodor Herzel: Founder of Zionism; an independent country for the Jews to avoid antisemitism in Palestine, “The Jewish State”1896

  • Alexander II: Russian Tsar, emancipated the serfs 1861, assassinated

  • Nicholas II: Bloody Sunday 1905, manipulated by Rasputin, left Russia in a war it could not afford, last Tsar of Russia, abdicated

  • Alexander Kerensky: Leader of Provisional Government after February Revolutions in Russia

  • Vladmir Lenin: Leader of Bolsheviks, “land, peace, bread”, left WW1 through Treaty of Brest Litovsk 1817

  • Leon Trotsky: Military strategist under Lenin, helped win Bolshevik civil war

  • Charles Darwin: “Origin of Species”, survival of the fittest, and theory of evolution, eventually becomes an idea called Social Darwinism

  • Freud: Psychoanalysis advocate, ego, ID, and superego, explored the subconsciousness


Period 4 (1914-2000) WW1 - Now

  • Archduke Franz Ferdinand: Austro-Hungarian prince, assassinated by Slavs, and sparked the July Crisis leading to ww1

  • Margaret Thatcher: “Iron Lady”, British PM post ww2, neoliberalism, revived arms race and Cold War tensions along with Reagan

  • Woodrow Wilson: US President during ww1, proposed 14 points and self determination of nations and the League of Nations to advocate world peace

  • Adolf Hitler: Fascist Nazi Germany Dictator

  • Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italy Dictator

  • Fransico Franco: Fascist Spanish Dictator

  • Joseph Stalin: Soviet Communist Dictator, ruthlessly consolidated totalitarian power

  • Winston Churchhill: British PM during ww2

  • Nikita Khrushchev: De-stalinized Soviet Union, crushed Hungarian Revolt 

  • Simone de Beauvoir: Feminist, author of “The Second Sex”

  • Lech Walesa: Leader of Solidarity movement in Poland, later became president of Poland

  • Mikhail Gorbachev: Allowed Eastern Bloc collapse, ended Cold War with Reagan and Thatcher 


Study to do:

  • Renaissance (done)

  • Reformation (done)

  • Age of Exploration (done)

  • New Monarchs 

  • Absolutism vs Constitutionalism (done)

  • Scientific Revolution (done)

  • Enlightenment (done)

  • 2nd Agricultural Rev (done)

  • Revolutions in Politics (done)

  • Daily Life in 1750-1800

  • Industrious Rev

  • Industrial Rev

  • Ideologies and Revolutions (done)

  • Life in Urban Society 1840-1914

  • Age of Nationalism (done)

  • West and the World

  • WW1

  • Age of Anxiety

  • WW2

  • Cold War (done)

  • Post War Challenges (done)

  • Life in age of Globalization 1990-now



The Dutch Golden Age 1600s


Economic Growth 

  • Fueled by booming economy

  • Netherlands are a massive trading nation with ports globally

  • Spices, textiles, precious metals

  • Dutch East India Company/Dutch West India Company were 2 most powerful trading companies in the world

Artistic Development

  • Realism, attention to detail, use of lights and shadows

Political Power

  • Powerful navy

  • Participated in 30 years war, helping them establish major power in Europe

Decline

  • Ended in late 1600s

  • Internal politics, economic problems = decline in Dutch power and influence


War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714


Causes

  • Charles II of Spain dies without a heir

  • He named grandson of Louis XIV to be his successor -> would’ve given Bourbon’s too much power

  • England, Dutch, and HRE feared imbalance and formed the Grand Alliance to fight




7 Years War 1756-1763

It was a significant cause of radical thought and revolutions

  • Maria Theresa (Austria) takes revenge on Prussia and retaking Silesia after the War of Austrian Succession: Prussia wins, Austria came close 

  • At the same time, France vs Britain for colonial empire

  • British win due to naval superiority 

Aftermath:

  • Treaty of Paris 1763: French colonial territory passed to British (canada, louisiana, india)

  • Britain and France both suffered largely from = raised taxes = popular unrest (one of causes for French Rev)



30 Years War 1618-1648

Causes

  • religious tension

  • Rivalry between Catholic Habsburgs (Spain, Austria) between Protestant nobles in HRE 

The War

  • Defenestration of Prague in Bohemia

  • Denmark (Protestant) invades

  • Swedish Protestants join

  • France (Catholic) joins the Protestants weaken the power of Habsburgs (politic>religion)

Result

  • Peace of Westphalia 1648

  • Recognized Calvinism as legal in HRE

  • Decentralized Germany by giving local princes more strength

  • France gains power

Outcomes

  • Huge death toll

  • Devastation, especially in Germany- agriculture, city suffers

  • End of religious wars



French Absolutism - French history pre-Revolution

Henry IV / Richelieu

  • First Bourbon French monarch

  • Issued Edict of Nantes 1598 (allows French Huguenots religious tolerance)

  • Centralized and limited power of nobles

Louis XIII

  • Weak, relied heavily on Cardinal Richelieu 

  • Richelieu centralizes through intendant system (royal officers who were responsible for enforcing kings policies)

  • Richelieu also weakened nobility by forcing them to live at royal court and to participate in royal ceremonies

Louis XIV

  • Sun King, absolutist 

  • Highly centralized bureaucracy and system of reward for loyalty to the king

  • Forced nobles to live in Palace of Versailles and participate in King’s daily routine

  • Supported development of French industry and trade


Russian Absolutism

  • Tsar had COMPLETE control of the government, military, and church 

  • Divine right absolutist

  • Serfdom chained most people to land

  • Expansionist policies: mostly into Asia

More info on Tsars in “Great Reforms of Russia” down below 




Social Changes in 1700s

  • Population boom

  • Columbian Exchange expands nutrition and diet

  • End of Bubonic Plague breakouts (last one in 1720 France)

  • Decreased dealth rates, birth rates also slightly declines due to birth control 

Pre-Agricultural Revolution 

  • 1600s, agriculture often failed due to weather (little ice age from 1500s to 1800s)

  • 17th century innovations (2 field system, crop rotation) could not keep up with population growth (malthusian crisis)

  • small crop lands owned by families, so if they did not have a good crop yield, they were cooked

Post-Agricultural Revolution

  • Realized clover can be used to fertilize land

  • Crop yield increased due to warmer climate

  • land cultivation: seedrows 

  • commercialization of farms: enclosure movement

Family Dynamics

  • Concept of childhood: Rousseau’s “Emile”

  • Emphasis on children's education

  • Childhood mostly an exclusive idea for elites

  • Working class needed children for survival, so they all worked together

  • nuclear family: parents + children

  • parents needed more money to start their own home = children are birthed later in life 

  • urbanization due to losing need for agricultural laborers

  • crowded cities

  • tenements: hastily constructed apartments- unhygienic and spread TB 

  • no plumbing, shit everywhere

  • poverty, crime, prostitution




Revolutionary Era (1775-1816)


Causes

-Wealth gaps: the rich were typically exempt from taxes, the majority peasant population paid all taxes

-Inflation caused unemployment

-European colonies legitimized and protected slavery (Africans only)

-Inspired by US Revolution

-Enlightenment ideas: natural rights, social contract, emancipation


Major Events

  • American Revolution 1775

  • French Rev 1789-99 (Reign of Terror 93-94)

  • Storming of Bastile, feudalism abolished in France 1789

  • Slave insurrection in Saint Domingue (Haiti) 1791: First successful slave revolt eventually leading to the independence of St. Domingue, was against France 

  • Thermidorian Reaction 1794-99: Overthrowing and execution of 

  • Robespierre due to his paranoia, new gov was led by the more moderate Directory

  • Napoleonic Era 1799

  • Haitian Independence/Napoleon becomes Emperor 1804 

  • Napoleon Exiled 1814


French Revolution in 1830

  • Charles X overthrown (final Bourbon monarch of France) -> replaced by Louis Phillipe “Bourgeois King”

Causes

  • Restoration of Catholic Church power

  • Paying nobles who lost land

  • Dissolved legislature

  • Censored press

  • Reduced middle class voting

Events

  • Parisians protest

  • Barricades in Paris 

  • Charles X abdicates and flees to England in 3 days 

Outcome

  • Louis Phillipe comes to power as constitutional monarch

  • Supported by upper middle classes

  • More liberal then Charles X, but still excluded workers/lower classes

  • Set stage for 1848 Rev


Revs of 1848 

  1. Liberalism: Desire for constitutional government with more political representation

  2. Nationalism: Minority groups wanted independence or unification (Germans, Italians, Hungarians)

  3. Economic Hardships: Food shortage, unemployment, poor working conditions

  4. Conservative Monarchs: Reaction against the Congress of Vienna and restored order after Napoleon

Metternich + Conservatism

  • Metternich is conservative Austrian minister, human nature = bad = must be in control

  • Liberalism = violence 

  • Multi-nationalist Austria, Russia, and Prussia was in great danger to rise a nationalist ideas: worked together within the conservative Holy Alliance

  • Karlsbad Degrees required Germany states to outlaw liberal organizations, police universities and newspapers, and secret police

  • Forced Italy and Spain to establish constitutional monarchies

Ireland Potato Famine

  • many died and had to immigrate 

  • Standardization/one crop agriculture made harvests vulnerable to blight

  • Britain's Whig government said the government should let events play itself out 

  • British gov. required huge amounts of food exported from Ireland to England even during the famine: ruthless exploitation

Britain

  • Corn Laws: tariffs on all grain

  • Due to ending of wars, grain imports grew cheaper, so commoners begin to prosper

  • Aristocrats wanted all the money, so Corn Law is implemented

  • Triggered protests, many killed: Peterloo Massacre

  • Six Acts: places controls on press and eliminated mass meetings

  • Whig’s Reform Bill of 1832: allowed House of COmmons to emerge as legislative body over the aristocratic House of Lords

  • Corn Laws repealed 1846, doctrine of free trade is placed

  • Ten Hours Act: limited workday for women and young people in factories to 10 hours 

Slavery

  • anti-slavery, pro freedom ideas

  • britain freed slaves across empire (except india)

  • Frances re-emancipation of slaves after their re-enslavement under Napoleon

Women’s Rights

  • George Sand, Bronte sisters: novels on persecution of woman

  • price inflation made it harder to feed families

  • women become more politically active

  • bad salaries couldn't pay for high bread prices

Italy

  • Italy was run by Austrians, the papacy, and Spanish Bourbons

  • Composer Verdi becomes a symbol of unified Italy free from foreign domination

  • Jan 1848, womans Italian Revolution 

  • Revolution was defeated by Austria, France, etc.

  • Failure of revolution over disunity 

France

  • objected Louis Philipe’s cronyism (favoritism), limited voting rights, censorship

  • King was exiled

  • Rising food prices, uncertain conditions of government

  • Louis Blanc: set up national workshops to create jobs, but then was taken away by new national Assembly

  • New national Assembly created national police force with country people

  • June protests ends up in massacre by the soldiers

  • Napoleon III comes to power 1851

Marx and Engles

  • “communist manifesto”

  • class struggle was going and the proletariat would seize production

  • become a influential idea over the 1800s

  • people wanted more power, and protections

King Frederick Willian IV 

  • Frankfurt congress: plans for German Unification

  • Debate wether to include Austria or not

  • German states remained disunited due to disunity among princes

  • Wilhelm IV refused the crown

Poland

  • want to revolt against austrains

  • Austrian rule was the only hope for peasant freedom so peasants did not join the planned revolts

  • Polish peasants slaughtered land owning nobles because of differing opinions 

Austria 

  • 1848 March revolution around cities 

  • Metternich was so unpopular that people unified under hatred against Metternich

  • Metternich fled 

  • Francis Joseph takes over

  • When Metternich was gone, the common unity was gone and class conflict began again

  • Rev crushed in many cities, esp by Tsar Nicholas I



Creation of Nation States 1850-1914

State building around a national identity


PROS:

  • Unification over shared history, language, culture 

  • Peoples needs are more easily met

CONS:

- State demands more from the people: increased taxes, military enlistment, loyalty to the national identity

-growth of conservative nationalism

- justification of ostracizing minorities with exclusionary policies (Jews)

- promoted abusive overseas colonialism 


Louis Napoleon / Napoleon III

He was overwhelmingly popular due to his names legacy and the peoples desire for a strong leader to prevent working class revolution. 


  • 1850: He overthrows the government because they were too conservative and wouldn’t let him consolidate power, declares himself emperor and starts 2nd French Empire


Social:

  • Right to strike and create unions

  • Improved housing

  • Public works (rebuilt Paris)

Economical:

  • Booming business due to rebuilding of Paris -> high wages -> low unemployment 

  • Supported investment banks

  • Built infrastructure to help France industrialize 

Political:

  • Universal male suffrage (Napoleon initially took voting rights away to try to convince parliament to give him more power but it didn't work)


Unif. of Italy 1861


  • At Congress of Vienna, Italy was separated: Austnians took Venice + Milan

  • Italy was seen as "geographic expression" (shows how decentralized they were)

  • Risorgimento: Struggle for Italian Unification

Northern Unification

  •  Victor Emmanvel II of Sardinia Piedmont was most stable, so led the unif.

  • Support by Cavour, PM of Piedmont: increased infrastructure, civil liberties, limited church authority

  • secret alliance w/Napoleon III  to fight off Austrians

  • Napoleon III betrayed, there was basically no change in Italy after Austrian invasion

  • Nationalists begin to revolt 

  • Cavour regains Napoleon III’s favor

  • Northern Italy Unifies

Southern Unification/Italy Unification

  • In Southern Italy, Garibaldi (romantic revolutionary nationalist) comes along with his Red Army + peasants; he is secretly supported by Cavour

  • Garibaldi was about to take over Rome + the Pope, but Cavour disagrees due to potential conflict with France (after Napoleon betrayed Italy due to religious conflict)

  • Garibaldi listens to Cavour, and the South unites with the North, Italian Unification is complete 

Results

  • Victor Emmanuel II becomes parliamentary monarch of Italy

  • Social inequality: the South and North were still uncentralized

  • Very low voting rights



Unification of Germany 1871 

  • Aust/Rus blocked Wilhem IV’s attempt to unify Germany in the 1850s = tension

  • Austria was excluded from Zollverein -> gave economic advantage for Prussia over Austria

  • Italy's Unification inspires Wilhelm I + Otto Von Bismark (PM of Prussia) to try again

Bismark

  • Raised taxes to grow military strength

  • Convinced Wilhelm to defy parliament in order to consolidate power over the German Confederation

Austro-Prussian War

  • Bismark promises neighboring countries to not get involved in the war with secret alliances

  • Bismark manipulated and forced Austria into war with Prussia in 1866 

  • Prussia wins, and Austria as a result withdraws with the German Confederation

Franco-Prussian War

  • Bismark concluded that in order to complete the unification of Germany, he needed to win a patriotic war against superpower France with Napoleon III

  • Forced Franco-Prussian War using previously existing conflict

  • Napoleon III goes through a humiliating loss

  • France is harshly punished, making France and Germany enemies

  • Germany unifies under Wilhelm I



“Great Reforms” in Russia


1850s, Pre-Reforms

  • Poor agrarian society with growing population

  • Serfdom 

  • Slow modernization

  • Growing protest movements

  • Humiliating military (Crimean War)

Crimean War

  • Competition in Middle East and Russia for lands from declining Ottomans

  • Introduction of modern weaponry, so Russia got destroyed (450k dead)

  • First introduction of professional woman nurses (Florence Nightingale)

  • Austria refused to help Russia during war, so they became enemies 

  • Realization of much needed industrialization

Tsar Alexander II

  • Freed the serfs 1861, but peasant suffering mostly continued

  • Zemstvo: local government elected by 3 class system 

  • Relaxed censorship, liberalized policies towards Jews

  • Transportation + industry = military growth

  • Trans Siberian Railway -> allowed highly populated East Russians to move to the lightly populated East 

  • Expanded by seizing land near its borders (Siberia, China, Afghanistan) -> allowed peasants new opportunities

  • Suppress nationalist movement  

  • Assassinated by anarchist group “The Peoples Will”

Tsar Alexander III

  • Reactionary

  • Sergei Witte (finance minster): extreme industrialization

  • Sergei doubled state railways, high protective tariffs

  • Encouraged foreigners to build in Russia 

  • Began to catch up with the West

Russian Revolution of 1905 - Tsar Nicholas II

  • Russo-Japanese War ends in a humiliating defeat for Russia

  • Peaceful palace on Winter Palace in St. Petersberg ends up a massacre due to shots fired from government military: Bloody Sunday, sparks Russian Rev

  • Tsar issues October Manifesto: creation of Duma 

  • Duma was useless, the Tsar had an absolute veto 

  • Tsar manipulated elections

  • Repressed liberals -> +3000 executions “Stolypin’s necktie”


















Random stuff i need to organize:


Pre-McKay 

Black Death

100 Years War


Period 1:

Renaissance (Italian humanism, northern Christian humanism)

Banking families ran Italian City States (married into royalty because monarchs needed money) (Medici Family, Signori) (patron of the arts)

War of Roses (internal conflict between English monarchs)

Fall of Constantinople: it provides motivation for Age of Exploration 

Columbian Exchange: smallpox, rice, soybean = tobacco, sugar, cacao, tomatoes, potatoes, etc. -> led to diverse diets, animals also used for diets and battle

Spanish Inquisition, reconquista, expulsion of the Jews

Encomienda System: Spanish system of forced labor, granted Spanish the right to convert indigenous to Catholicism in exchange for labor