Period 1 (1491-1607) Pre-Columbian Societies and Early Contact Notes on English Colonization
Period 1 (1491-1607): Pre-Columbian Societies to English Colonization
On a North American continent controlled by American Indians, contact among the peoples of Europe, the Americas, and West Africa created a new world.
The timeline spans from the era of indigenous control before European arrival to the eve of the English colonization at Jamestown.
The period begins in and continues until .
The First Americans and Migration
Evidence suggests the first Americans migrated across the Bering Strait, a waterway between Siberia (Russia) and Alaska (U.S.).
Geographic features associated with this region include the Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Gulf of Anadyr, and the St. Lawrence and Nunivak Islands.
The International Date Line passes through this region, which separates the Seward Peninsula in Alaska from the Kamchatka Peninsula and Siberia.
South and Central American Civilizations
Aztecs (Mexico):
Centered at Tenochtitlan.
Features included large public buildings and complex irrigation systems.
Developed extensive road networks and trade networks.
Social structures included the practice of slavery.
Inca (Peru):
Located in the Andes Mountains with major sites such as Machu Picchu.
Shared similar complex components as the Aztecs, including well-developed infrastructure and political organization.
Both the Aztecs and Incas had highly sophisticated civilizations long before European arrival.
Geography and North American Regional Adaptations
The geography of North America is highly varied, including deserts, forests, mountains, and plains.
Native American civilizations in the present-day U.S. were not as centrally developed as those in the South (Aztecs/Incas) but adapted uniquely to diverse environments.
Tribal units did not consider themselves part of a single, unified group but were distinct based on geography.
1. Great Basin and Great Plains
Predominantly nomadic societies.
Relied on hunting as a primary means of survival.
The nomadic lifestyle was largely a response to a lack of permanent natural resources in these arid or vast grassland regions.
2. Northeast, Mississippi River Valley, and Atlantic Seaboard
Characterized by a mix of sedentary agriculture and hunting.
Societies were more permanent due to more abundant water and fertile land.
Cahokia: A major Mississippian culture center that had disappeared long before European arrival. Archaeological sites linked to Mississippian and related cultures (Oneota, Fort Ancient, Caddoan, Plaquemine, and South Appalachian) include:
Aztalan, Cahokia, Moundville, and Etowah.
Spiro, Parkin, Chucalissa, and Dickson.
Major cultural influence centered around the Mississippi River and its tributaries.
3. Northwest and Present-day California
Societies relied on hunting, fishing, and foraging.
Dense forests and coastal access provided stable food sources without the need for large-scale agriculture.
4. Southwest
Maize (corn) served as a significant and central food source.
The cultivation of maize supported sedentary livelihoods and the development of permanent settlements.
European Exploration and Technological Advancement
Motivations for Exploration (The 3 G’s)
Gold and Silver: The search for wealth to enrich the home nation.
Glory: Intense military and political competition between European powers.
God: The desire to spread Christianity to new populations.
Overcoming Obstacles through Technology
Caravels: Small, highly maneuverable ships that allowed the Portuguese and others to explore the Atlantic Ocean and navigate coastal waters effectively.
Sextant: A precision instrument used for sea navigation to determine latitude.
Joint-Stock Companies: A business model where a group of investors pooled their capital to fund large-scale investments. This made starting colonies, like those funded by the Virginia Company of London, financially possible.
The Columbian Exchange and Triangle Trade
The Columbian Exchange refers to the movement of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Old World and the New World.
From the Americas to Europe, Africa, and Asia
Crops: Maize (corn), potatoes, sweet potatoes, beans, peanuts, squashes, tomatoes, chili peppers, avocados, pineapples, pumpkins, and tobacco.
Cacao: The source of chocolate.
Medicine: Quinine, which was used to treat malaria.
From Europe, Africa, and Asia to the Americas
Crops: Wheat, rice, sugar, bananas, and grapes (for wine).
Livestock: Horses, cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, and pigs.
Weeds: Dandelions.
Diseases: Smallpox, measles, and typhus. These had a devastating impact on indigenous populations who lacked immunity.
Impacts of Interaction
Americas to Europe/Africa: Maize and potatoes led to a population boom in Europe due to increased caloric intake.
Europe to Americas: Wheat and rice changed diets; horses revolutionized the hunting and warfare of Great Plains tribes; oxen improved agricultural labor.
Europe to Africa: The Portuguese and Spanish initiated the slave trade in West Africa to provide labor for New World colonies.
Cultural and Philosophical Misunderstandings
Gender Roles: Indigenous societies were often matrilineal (family line through the mother), whereas Europeans were strictly patriarchal (family line through the father).
Land Ownership: Indigenous views focused on communal land use, while Europeans emphasized private property and individual ownership.
Religion: Indigenous peoples were generally animistic or polytheistic, while Europeans were Christian (largely Catholic or Protestant).
The Spanish Caste System (Las Castas)
Interaction in the and centuries led to a diverse and rigid social hierarchy in Spanish colonies:
Peninsulares: Spanish officials born in Spain; they held the highest status.
Creoles: People of Spanish descent born in the Americas.
Mestizos: People of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry.
Mulatos: People of mixed Spanish and African ancestry.
Natives: Indigenous peoples original to the Americas.
Africans: Peoples brought from Africa, primarily for enslaved labor.
Intellectual Debates and Indigenous Treatment
The Valladolid Debate
Juan de Sepúlveda: Argued against Native American rights, viewing them as "savages" and inferior, justifying their conquest.
Bartolomé de las Casas: Advocated for Native Americans, arguing for their humanity and better treatment. He was a central figure in documenting Spanish abuses and the development of the "Black Legend."
The Black Legend: The perception that Spanish conquerors were uniquely cruel and abusive toward indigenous populations.
Comparative Colonial Relationships
British:
Goal: Settlement and land ownership for agriculture (cash crops).
Strategy: "Displace and Replace." They forcibly took land leading to conflict and war.
View: Saw Natives as culturally inferior and obstacles to expansion.
French:
Goal: Trade, specifically the fur trade.
Strategy: Trade and Ally. Created intermarriages and alliances; population was sparse, leading to less conflict.
View: Saw Natives as trade partners and occasional military allies.
Spanish:
Goal: Conquest and conversion.
Strategy: Conquer and Convert. Used the Encomienda System for enslavement and the Mission System for forced religious conversion.
View: Saw Natives as subjects to be ruled and souls to be converted; practiced intermarriage resulting in the caste system.
Questions & Discussion
Diego Rivera Mural Analysis
What do you see in the mural? Looking specifically at the interaction between different social classes and ethnic groups in Mexico.
What is the Point of View (POV) of the artist, and why? Artists like Diego Rivera often depicted the struggles of the working class and the brutality of the conquest.
Hypothesis of scene: Analysis of historical events such as the Encomienda system or the conquest based on visual evidence.
Causes and Effects: The cause of such scenes is usually European encroachment and the desire for gold or conversion; the effect is the decimation of native populations and the rise of a new mixed-race society.