History of English Language (ENG501) Study Guide

Introduction to Language: Definitions and Essential Features \n\n* Definition of Language: Language is defined as a method of human communication, which can be either spoken or written. It consists of the use of words in a structured and conventional way. It is a system of usual spoken or written symbols by which human beings, as members of a social group, express themselves. \n\n* Merriam-Webster Definition: The words, their pronunciation, and methods of combining them that are understood by a community. It is a formal system of signs and symbols (like calculus in logic) with rules for expression. \n\n* Key Features of Human Language: \n * Displacement: The ability to communicate about things not present in the \"here and now, \" including the past, future, or fictional scenarios. \n * Arbitrariness: There is no natural or iconic connection between a linguistic form and its meaning (e.g., the word \"cup\" has no physical connection to the object). \n * Productivity: Also known as creativity or open-endedness, this allows humans to create infinite new expressions and novel utterances. \n * Cultural Transmission: Language is not inherited genetically (like eye color) but is acquired within a specific culture. A child born in Pakistan moving to Africa will acquire regional languages like Igbo or Somali. \n * Duality: Language is organized at two levels: physical sounds and sentence-level meaning (e.g., sounds $n, i, b$ can form \"bin\" or \"nib\"). \n\n* Elements of Language: \n * Words: The most basic elements of natural language. Meaning is ascribed through cultural conventions. \n * Grammar: Fluid rules that describe recurring language patterns and functions. It dictates word order and form changes. \n * Speech and Writing: The amalgamation of words and grammar to convey a message. \n\n# The Lifecycle and Evolution of Language \n\n* Language Birth: This is a misnomer; it refers to a divergence process where a variety becomes recognized as separate from its ancestor. It cannot be predicted and happens through cumulative accretion of features. \n\n* Language Growth: Languages are organic entities that shift according to the social, political, or environmental needs of users. Individual speakers use creativity to fill gaps in communication. \n\n* Language Death: A language becomes extinct when there are no native speakers left (e.g., Cornish was said to have died in $1777$). However, languages can be revived. \n\n* Dead but Not Extinct: Classical Latin and Classical Greek are considered \"dead\" because they are no longer spoken as they were by figures like Julius Caesar or Pericles, yet they changed into Romance languages. \n\n# Theories on the Origin of Language \n\n* Timeline: Spoken language likely developed between $100,000$ and $50,000$ years ago, while written language appeared only about $5,000$ years ago. \n\n* Theories: \n * The Divine Source: Biblical tradition (God and Adam), Hindu tradition (Sarasvati), and Islamic tradition (The Quran) suggest a divine origin. \n * Natural Sound Source: Words echo natural sounds or emotional cries (pain, joy). \n * Social Interaction Source: Sounds like hums and grunts produced during physical effort and social interaction. \n * Physical Adaptation Source: Structural differences in the human skull and pharynx compared to primates. \n * Tool-making Source: Manual gestures as a precursor to speech. \n * Genetic Source: Theories involving the specific placement of the larynx in humans at birth. \n\n# Language Families and Stages of Development \n\n* The Family Tree Model: Proposed by Sir William Jones in $1786$ after observing Sanskrit's affinity to Latin and Greek. It hypnotizes a common ancestor for different geographical languages. \n\n* Divergent Development: One language spoken in two villages can diverge over time, especially if migration occurs. After hundreds of years, the varieties become mutually unintelligible. \n\n* Global Statistics: There are over $6,000$ languages today. Major families include Semitic (Arabic, Hebrew) and Hamitic, which share a common ancestor from before $3000\,BC$. \n\n# Historical Linguistics: Key Terms \n\n* Phonology: The study of sound organization and interaction. English has approximately $44$ speech sounds. Components include Pitch (high/low), Stress (force), and Juncture (pauses). \n\n* Morphology: Study of word structure and morphemes (smallest units of meaning). Includes Inflection (sentence roles) and Derivation (creating new words like \"maltreat\"). \n\n* Semantics: The study of meaning. Semantic shift describes meaning changes over time (e.g., \"should\" and \"would\" were originally past tense). \n\n* Pragmatics: Study of how context contributes to meaning, overcoming ambiguity (e.g., \"crack this puzzle\" means solve, not break). \n\n* Syntax: Rules for word order and sentence structure. Changes more slowly than other levels. \n\n* Synchronic vs. Diachronic: \n * Synchronic: Study of language at a fixed point in time (Greek: $syn$ = together, $khronos$ = time). \n * Diachronic: Study of language change over history ($dia$ = through). \n\n# Introduction to English and Its Global Status \n\n* Historical Definition: Dr. Johnson ($18th\,century$) defined English as the language belonging to England. \n* Modern Definitions: A Germanic language spoken in the British Isles, USA, and Commonwealth. \n* Ownership: English is no longer owned just by the English; it is the world's lingua franca. \n* Speakers: \n * Native speakers: $350-450 \times 10^6$. \n * Foreign language users: Over $700 \times 10^6$. \n * Total population reached: Approximately $1/4$ of the globe ($1.5-2 \times 10^9$). \n* The Richest Vocabulary: The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) lists about $500,000$ words, plus $500,000$ un-catalogued technical terms. \n* Usage Facts: $3/4$ of the world's mail is in English; $80[\%]$ of computer info; the language of aviation and navigation. \n\n# English in the Pakistani Context \n\n* Colonial History: Under British control for approximately $90$ years. \n* Status: Retained as an official language post-independence due to its perceived neutrality among ethnic movements. \n* Legislation: Article $251$ of the Constitution names Urdu as the national language, but English remains the medium for elite schools and administration. General Zia-ul-Haq attempted \"Urdunisation\" in $1978$, but the policy was reversed due to demand for English. \n\n# The History and Ancestry of English \n\n* Historical Timeline of Influences: \n * $600\,BC$: Celts (Welsh, Scots). \n * $55\,BC$: Romans (Introduction of Latin). \n * $450\,AD$: Anglo-Saxons (Germanic tribes: Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians). \n * $800\,AD$: Vikings (Old Norse influence). \n * $1066\,AD$: Normans (Invasion from France; introduction of French). \n * $1476\,AD$: Printing Press (William Caxton). \n * $16th\,Century$: Shakespeare and the English Bible. \n\n* Main Eras: \n * Old English: $450$ to $1150$. Full inflections. \n * Middle English: $1150$ to $1500$. Reduced inflections. \n * Early Modern English: $1500$ to $1800$. Renaissance and Standardization. \n * Late Modern English: $1800$ to Present. Global expansion. \n\n# Detailed Old English Period ($450\,AD$ - $1150\,AD$) \n\n* Pre-English Britain: Stone Age (Paleolithic/Neolithic) until $2000\,BC$. Roman Conquest began in $43\,AD$ under Emperor Claudius, sending $40,000$ troops. \n* Roman Influence: Advancement of the frontier to Solway and Tyne under Agricola ($78-85\,AD$). Christianity was present by $314\,AD$. Latin was used by officials but didn't replace Celtic. \n* Germanic Invasion ($449\,AD$): Tribes settled: Jutes (Kent), Saxons (Essex, Sussex, Wessex), and Angles (East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria). These kingdoms formed the Heptarchy. \n* Names: The land was called \"Angelcynn\" until $1000\,AD$, then \"England.\" The language was called \"Englisc.\" \n* OE Features: \n * Phonology: Used runic alphabet (futhorc) before the Roman alphabet. \n * Symbols: Used symbols like $\text{\u01b7}$ (wynn), $\text{\u00fe}$ (thorn), and $\text{\u00f0}$ (eth) for the \"th\" sound. Vowels marked with a macron for length. \n * Grammar: Highly synthetic with four cases (Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative). Pronouns included Singular, Plural, and Dual numbers (for two people). \n * Verbs: Divided into Weak (regular) and Strong (irregular). Strong verbs used vowel shifts (e.g., sing, sang, sung). \n * Vocabulary: Relied on prefixes/suffixes. Very few Celtic words (except place names like London). Christianity brought Latin/Greek words (Easter, Hell). \n\n# The Middle English Period ($1150\,AD$ - $1500\,AD$) \n\n* The Norman Conquest ($1066$): William the Conqueror's victory at the Battle of Hastings led to French becoming the language of the ruling class for $200$ years. \n* The Re-establishment of English: \n * $1204$: King John lost Normandy, severing ties with the continent. \n * $1337-1453$: The Hundred Years\u2019 War fanned anti-French sentiment. \n * $1348-1350$: The Black Death killed $30-40[\%]$ of the population, leading to a labor shortage and the rise of the English-speaking middle class. \n * $1362$: The Statute of Pleadings required court proceedings to be held in English. \n * $1381$: The Peasants\u2019 Revolt signaled the economic power of the laboring class. \n* Grammar Changes: English shifted from synthetic to analytic. Loss of grammatical gender. The plural $s$ became dominant over $en$. \n* Vocabulary Borrowing: Thousands of French words entered domains: \n * Domestic: curtain, couch, chair, cushion. \n * Government: crown, state, majesty, parliament. \n * Law: felony, assault, adultery, judge. \n * Army/Navy: army, navy, peace, enemy, sergeant. \n* The London Standard: Since London was the political and commercial capital, East Midland dialect became the recognized standard for speech and writing by the $15th\,century$. \n\n# The Renaissance and Early Modern English ($1500\,AD$ - $1800\,AD$) \n\n* Great Vowel Shift: A massive change in the pronunciation of long vowels occurred between $1400$ and $1600$. Tongue elevation and mouth closing resulted in vowels no longer matching their continental values (e.g., $\text{a}$ in father became like $\text{a}$ in name). \n* The Problem of Orthography: Mulcaster sought to standardize spelling based on usage. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary ($1755$) was a major milestone in fixing spelling. \n* Vocabulary Enrichment: \n * Inkhorn Terms: Learned words from Latin/Greek heavily criticized but many survived (e.g., atmosphere, skeleton). \n * Borrowings: English borrowed from over $50$ languages in this period (Italian: balcony, stanza; Spanish: alligator, potato). \n* Grammarians ($18th\,century$): Prescriptive grammars emerged to reduce language to rules (Lowth, Johnson). Introduced rules like the prohibition of double negatives and the distinction between \"lay\" and \"lie.\" \n\n# The Development of Modern English ($1800\,AD$ - Present) \n\n* Influences of Science/Technology: Rapid need for technical terms. Medicine: anemia, bacteriology, AIDS. Physics: calorie, electron, relativity. Computing: PC, RAM, byte, download, virus. \n* War and Media: World Wars introduced terms like camouflage, air raid, and radar. Media introduced broadcast, FM, AM, and VCR. \n* Slang: Described as a \"vagabond language.\" Words like nerd, geek, and boom started as slang. \n* Progressive Verb Forms: A major modern development in grammar (e.g., \"I am singing,\" \"the house is being built\"). \n\n# Varieties of English \n\n* American English: Native settlers arrived in the $17th\,century$. More homogeneous and conservative than British English. Rhotic (pronounces the \"r\"). Uses \"fall\" for autumn and \"gotten\" as a past participle. \n* Australian English: Established in $1788$ with the First Fleet of $1,000$ people. Remarkably uniform geographically. Borrowed words from Aborigines (kangaroo, dingo). Distinctive vowels (say sounds like /sa/). \n* South-Asian English: Spoken as a second language by $3[\%]$ ($33 \times 10^6$ people). Nativized with unique features like reduplication (\"Hot hot coffee\") and information questions without subject/auxiliary inversion. \n* Pidgins and Creoles: Over $200$ exist worldwide. A Pidgin is an auxiliary trade language; a Creole is when that becomes a community's first language (e.g., Tok Pisin, Gullah). \n\n# The Concentric Circles of English (Braj Kachru) \n\n* The Inner Circle: First language (USA, UK, Canada, Australia). $320 \times 10^6$ speakers. \n* The Outer Circle: Second/official language (India, Nigeria, Pakistan). \n* The Expanding Circle: Foreign language (China, Japan, Europe). Strengthening English as the global lingua franca. \n\n# Future of English \n\n* Centripetal Forces: Forces favoring standardization for mutual comprehensibility (the Internet, Global media). \n* Centrifugal Forces: Forces favoring diversity and local identity (Regional Englishes). \n* Conclusion: English will continue to evolve as long as it is a living language, responding to the cultural and social needs of its diverse global population.