Week 4:Wildlife Reasources

Definition and Scope of Wildlife Resources

• Definition of Wildlife:

  • Wildlife encompasses all forms of life, including both plants and animals, that live within their natural and undisturbed habitats.

  • In practical and common usage, the term usually specifically denotes animal species that remain untouched or unaffected by human intervention and factors.

• Ecological Context:

  • Every species of wildlife is adapted to and enjoys a specific climate and a unique ecological situation.

• Major Habitat Types:

  • Forests.

  • Desert shrub lands.

  • Riparian zones (areas adjacent to rivers and streams).

  • Wetlands.

  • Grasslands.

  • Open woodlands.

  • Tundra.

• Fundamental Wildlife Requirements:

  • Food.

  • Water.

  • Cover (shelter).

  • Space.

  • Mates.

  • Other environmental factors.

Importance of Wildlife Resources

• Entertainment and Recreation:

  • Wildlife offers a primary means of recreation. Visiting parks and sanctuaries provides an enjoyable experience for both children and adults.

• Source of Genetic Information and Research:

  • Wild organisms are essential for scientific experimentation. For example, species like monkeys and chimpanzees are frequently used to test the effects of new medicines.

  • Wildlife serves as a "gene bank," preserving genetic material that can be accessed for future scientific or agricultural needs.

• Modern Agriculture:

  • Wild plants are used to produce new hybrid crop varieties.

  • Wild animals are used to develop better hybrid livestock varieties.

  • Wildlife is a reservoir for the production of entirely new species of plants and animals for agricultural use.

• Cultural and Religious Significance:

  • Wildlife has deeply rooted effects on religion, sculpture, literature, and art.

  • Numerous mythological stories and children's fables are built upon wildlife characters and motifs.

• Tourism and Economic Impact:

  • Wildlife tourism in National Parks acts as a major source of foreign exchange for both national and international economies.

• Indicators of Climate Change:

  • Because the behaviors, distribution, and population health of wildlife are intrinsically linked to environmental conditions, they serve as vital indicators of ecological shifts.

  • Polar Bears: Forced to travel longer distances for food due to global warming, which negatively impacts their reproduction and general health.

  • Migratory Birds: Changes in the timing of migration, nesting, and feeding (e.g., arriving at breeding grounds earlier due to warmer temperatures) provide insights into climatic shifts.

  • Amphibians: Highly sensitive to moisture and temperature; shifts in breeding and hibernation patterns due to precipitation changes can lead to population declines.

  • Coral Reefs: Increased sea temperatures lead to coral bleaching events, marking shifts in marine ecosystems.

  • Butterflies and Insects: Highly sensitive to temperature; scientists observe shifts in distribution, such as species moving to higher latitudes or altitudes to find cooler conditions.

• Ecological and Practical Benefits:

  • Maintaining the ecological balance via the "web of life."

  • Source of food (both plants and animals).

  • Provision of fuel wood and charcoal.

  • Medicinal resources via Ethnobotany.

  • Aesthetic value.

  • Soil quality indicators (e.g., Earthworms).

Threats to Wildlife

• Habitat Fragmentation and Loss:

  • This is the severe subdivision of previously continuous habitat areas, primarily driven by land development.

  • Impact: Results in outright habitat loss, blocks essential migration routes, and creates isolated "islands" of population that limit genetic mixing.

• Conflict Over Habitats:

  • Conflicts arise when human communities (such as pastoralists) live near or within wilderness areas and share resources with wildlife.

• Recreational Disturbances:

  • Activities by hikers, campers, tourists, and fishermen can disturb wildlife. There is an urgent need to limit these activities to minimize impact.

• Direct Human Disturbance:

  • Many wilderness-dependent species cannot handle human interaction. Some become aggressive, while others attempt to move to new areas, which may not always be possible.

• Hunting, Poaching, and Illegal Trade:

  • Illegal trade in animal resources and the bush meat trade significantly deplete populations.

  • Case Study: Gorillas:

    • Gorillas are frequently slaughtered for the black market bush meat trade in Central Africa.

    • A third of the wild gorilla population was estimated to have been killed by the Ebola virus in $2003$.

    • Gorillas are susceptible to human diseases, including respiratory infections, tuberculosis (TB), and scabies, especially when they raid farms or interact with humans.

• Climate Change Factors:

  • Human activities like burning fossil fuels alter the atmosphere.

  • Threats include more frequent and intense storms, droughts, heat waves, melting glaciers, and rising sea levels that destroy habitats.

Sustainable Management of Wildlife Resources

• Conservation and Protected Areas:

  • Includes identifying priority areas and designating them as National Parks, Game Reserves, or Conservancies.

  • Protected Area Definition: A defined area of land or sea dedicated to the maintenance of biological diversity, managed through legal or effective means.

  • In Kenya, these areas are established via a government gazette notice.

  • Endangered Species Protection Act: A legal framework that protects listed species from hunting and preserves their critical habitats.

• Key Conservation Entities in Kenya:

  • Ol Pejeta Conservancy: Spans $90,000$ acres in Laikipia County. It is the largest Black Rhino sanctuary in East Africa and is on the IUCN Green List. (Black Rhino numbers in Kenya fell from over $20,000$ in $1970$ to just $350$ in $1990$; there are now approximately $5,550$ in Africa).

  • Giraffe Centre: Located in Nairobi; started as a rehabilitation project to rescue the Rothschild Giraffe.

  • Lewa Wildlife Conservancy: Acts as a model for species management and community conservation programs.

• Differences in Management Structures:

  • National Parks: Managed by national government authorities; primarily for conservation; strictly limited human activity (no agriculture/logging); regulated tourism.

  • Game Reserves: Managed by government or private organizations; allows wildlife conservation along with controlled hunting and tourism; human activity levels vary.

  • Conservancies: Managed by local communities, NGOs, or private entities; focus on conservation, community development, and sustainable land use; may permit controlled livestock grazing.

• Management Strategies and Monitoring:

  • Monitoring animal disease levels.

  • Maintaining the "minimum viable population" with sufficient genetic variability.

  • Tracking seasonal migratory movements and monitoring population sizes.

  • Observing seasonal rainfall, fire patterns, and water quality.

  • Encouraging community-based programs, public awareness, and education.

• Game Farming:

  • Licensed farming for animals such as crocodiles, tortoises, chameleons, reptiles, snails, frogs, lizards, butterflies, snakes (for venom/breeding), ostriches, and various birds (quail, guinea fowl).

  • Plant farming including Aloe, White’s ginger (Mondia whytei) used for medicinal rhizomes, and Camphor basil (Ocimum kilimanscharicum) used as an insect repellent.

• Animal Adoption and Breeding:

  • KWS Animal Adoption Program: Allows individuals/corporates to sponsor animals at the Nairobi Animal Orphanage.

  • David Sheldrick Foundation: Founded in $1977$; focus on adopting young elephants, rhinos, and giraffes.

  • Captive Breeding: Maintaining small populations in captivity for future reintroduction into the wild.

Ecotourism

• Definition: Short for "ecological tourism," it is responsible and sustainable travel that focuses on natural environments and cultural heritage while minimizing negative impacts.

• Core Principles:

  1. Nature-Centered: Revolves around pristine settings like rainforests and reserves.

  2. Conservation Focus: Revenues are often reinvested into protecting ecosystems.

  3. Sustainability: Focuses on waste disposal, energy efficiency, and water conservation.

  4. Community Involvement: Locals act as guides and hosts, benefiting economically.

  5. Education: Uses interpretive programs to teach travelers about preservation.

  6. Responsible Wildlife Viewing: Non-invasive observation that avoids stressing animals.

  7. Cultural Engagement: Respectful interaction with indigenous lifestyles.

  8. Low-Impact Activities: Emphasis on hiking, bird-watching, and photography over invasive pursuits.

Case Study: The Serengeti-Mara Migration

• The Phenomenon: The annual movement of millions of wildebeests, zebras, and herbivores across the East African Serengeti ecosystem.

• Community Impact: In the Maasai Mara, $15$ conservancies protect over $450,000$ acres. This has doubled the lion population over $10$ years and allows $3,000$ households to earn over $\$4,000,000$ annually.

• Migration Cycle:

  • Calving Season ($December$ to $March$): Occurs in southern Serengeti/Ndutu (Tanzania); high predator activity due to young calves.

  • Long-Distance Migration ($April$ to $June$): Herds move north in search of grass.

  • River Crossings ($July$ to $August$): Herds cross the Mara River in Kenya; risk from crocodiles.

  • Return to South ($September$ to $November$): Herds journey back to the southern plains.

Case Study: Hirola Antelope

• Status: A rare and critically endangered species native to the Kenya-Somalia border region (Beatragus hunter).

• Population Trends: Numbers rose from $48$ in $2012$ to $97$ in $2015$ due to community protection, but remained less than $500$ by $2021$.

• Threats: Habitat loss, predation, and diseases.