($$1921$$ to $$1939$$/$$1941$$) Unit 7 Study Guide: The Harding, Coolidge, Hoover, and FDR New Deal Era

Assignment Overview and Course Context

• Course and Instructor: Led by Mr. Myers for AP United States History (APUSH), specifically Context Assignment Number $11$.

• Historical Focus Era: The presidencies of Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and the first two terms of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and the New Deal ($1921$ to $1939$/$1941$).

• Period Classification: This material falls within APUSH Period $7$.

• Assignment Structure: Watch the video, take content notes in a preferred format, and complete a reflection paragraph following specific length requirements. Red and blue text represents core assignment requirements, with blue notes specifically linked to quiz content.

• Learning Objectives: Focus on changes and continuities between $1921$ and $1939$.

Discussion and Analytical Prompts

• Prompt 1: Examine the roots of America's cultural civil war during the $1920$s.

• Prompt 2: Evaluate the extent to which the domestic and foreign policies of Republican presidents Harding and Coolidge served as continuities of the Gilded Age "caretaker" presidents.

• Prompt 3: Assess the subtle shifts in domestic and foreign policy enacted by President Herbert Hoover compared to his predecessors.

• Prompt 4: Compare the underlying causes of the Great Depression with the Panic of $1893$.

• Prompt 5: Evaluate FDR's response to the Great Depression through the New Deal during his first two terms ($1933$-$1939$).

• Prompt 6: Analyze the claim that FDR's primary goal in his first two terms was to make the United States more financially secure.

• Prompt 7: Assess the resilience and resistance of African Americans from $1920$ to $1941$.

• Prompt 8: Examine the changes and continuities for women and other historically marginalized groups between $1920$ and $1941$.

Academic Sources and Bibliographic References

• APUSH Materials: CED Units $7.7$ through $7.11$; Gilder-Lehrman Institute Study Guide; Textbook chapters $22$ and $23$.

• Literature and History Texts:   - Coolidge by Amity Shallis.   - The Soul of America by John Meacham.   - Lords of Finance by Lequot Amad.   - Hoover: An Extraordinary Life and Extraordinary Times by Kenneth White.   - Freedom from Fear by David M. Kennedy.   - Leadership (focusing on FDR's first $100$ days) by Doris Kearns Goodwin.   - Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt by H.W. Brands (University of Texas).   - Freedom on My Mind (African American history).   - Indigenous History by Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz.

The Roaring Twenties: A Transformative Decade

• Common Names: Dubbed the "Roaring $20$s" or the "Jazz Age."

• Economic Dynamics: Marked by unprecedented prosperity fueled by industrial growth, consumerism, and widespread mechanization.

• Cultural Spirit: A rebellious spirit challenged traditional norms, exemplified by:   - Jazz Music: A symbol of youthful exuberance and innovation.   - Flappers: Women who defied gender conventions through bold fashion and behavior.   - Prohibition: Spurred the rise of speakeasies and bootlegging due to illicit alcohol trade.

• Public Media: Characterized by specific trends like "Flagpole City movies" and connections to cultural figures like F. Scott Fitzgerald and The Great Gatsby.

Technological Innovation and Economic Expansion

• Manufacturing Productivity: Horsepower per wage earner increased by $50\%$ between $1919$ and $1929$ due to mechanization.

• Electrification: Households with electricity grew from $16\%$ in $1912$ to nearly two-thirds by the late $1920$s, primarily in urban areas.

• New Consumer Staples: Adoption of electric vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, freezers, and automated washing machines for the middle class.

• Consumer Financing: The emergence of household credit and "installment buying" allowed families to afford these conveniences.

• Wealth Gap: Economic prosperity was unevenly distributed, showing a widening gap between the wealthy and the poor.

Branding, Advertising, and Consumer Culture

• Iconic Food Brands: Companies developed brands like Cornflakes, Campbell's Soup, and Coca-Cola as cultural symbols.

• Confectionary Rise: Introduction of candy bars like Milky Way, Butterfinger, Baby Ruth, and Reese's Cups.

• Marketing Focus: Advertisements emphasized convenience, nutrition, comfort, and affordable luxury (e.g., ice cream bars).

Urbanization, Modernism, and Art Deco

• The "New Era": For the first time, a majority of Americans ($51\%$) lived in cities rather than rural regions by the $1920$s.

• Emerging Ideologies: Cities became hubs for socialism, communism, and liberalism, collectively termed "Modernism."

• Modernist Art: The Art Deco movement flourished, featuring bold geometric designs and streamlined aesthetics, breaking from the ornate Victorian style and symbolizing faith in technological progress.

Cultural Wars and Resistance to Change

• Societal Divisions: Conflict between "wats" and "dries" (wet vs. dry regarding Prohibition) and urban modernizers vs. rural traditionalists.

• The Resurgence of the KKK: The Ku Klux Klan expanded nationally beyond the South, targeting African Americans, Catholics, Jewish communities, and immigrants.

• Reactionary Movements:   - Nativism: Anti-immigration sentiment led to discriminatory policies.   - Religious Fundamentalism: Sought to counter perceived moral decline from modernist ideas.   - Eugenics: A peak in pseudo-scientific ideas regarding racial hierarchy and selective breeding.

The End of the Progressive Era

• Succession of Leadership: Followed the dominance of activist presidents Theodore Roosevelt (Square Deal) and Woodrow Wilson (New Freedom).

• Shift to Conservatism: The election of Warren G. Harding in $1920$ ended the activist spirit in favor of a "Return to Normalcy."

• Laissez-Faire Policies: Under Harding and Coolidge, the federal government prioritized business interests, creating what some call "Gilded Age $2.0$."

Warren G. Harding: Presidency and Policy ($1920$-$1923$)

• Ranking: His C-SPAN ranking is noted at number $37$.

• Leadership Philosophy: Known for a lack of clear vision; his "Return to Normalcy" slogan lacked substantive meaning to him personally.

• Cabinet Appointments:   - Secretary of State: Charles Evans Hughes.   - Secretary of the Treasury: Andrew Mellon.   - Secretary of Commerce: Herbert Hoover.

• Domestic Policy: Enacted the Fordney-McCumber Tariff ($1922$) to protect American industry and the Johnson Immigration Court Act of $1921$ to restrict immigration based on national quotas (closing the door on the "Second Wave").

• Foreign Policy: Oversaw the Naval Disarmament Conference in Washington D.C. in November $1921$.

Harding Administration Corruption and Scandal

• Personal Struggles: Harding famously told friend Harry Doherty, "I am not worried about my enemies. It's my friends that are keeping me awake at nights."

• The Teapot Dome Scandal: Considered the worst political scandal in U.S. history until Watergate. Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall was convicted of accepting bribes for leasing government oil reserves to private companies, becoming the first cabinet member to serve prison time.

• Harry Doherty: The Attorney General resigned under pressure due to separate corruption implications.

• End of Term: Harding died suddenly of a stroke in August $1923$ in San Francisco during an official trip.

Calvin Coolidge: "Silent Cal" and Economic Fiscalism ($1923$-$1928$)

• Succession: Vice President Coolidge finished Harding's term after $1923$ and was re-elected in $1924$.

• Ranking: C-SPAN ranking number $24$.

• Philosophy: Emphasized minimal government intervention, believing it was more important to prevent harmful legislation than enact beneficial laws. He famously stated, "The chief business of the American people is business."

• Domestic Policy:   - Fiscal Discipline: Focused on reducing national debt.   - Vetoes: Vetoed two bills for veteran bonuses (later passed by Congress anyway).   - Taxation: Revenue Acts of $1924$ and $1926$ implemented "trickle-down" economics as championed by Andrew Mellon.

Coolidge Legislation and Foreign Policy

• Immigration: Signed the Johnson-Reed Act (Immigration Act of $1924$), which strictly slammed the door on immigrants via national origin quotas and restricted Asian populations.

• Foreign Policy Stance: Balanced internationalism with isolationism. Adhered to the Monroe Doctrine and avoided entangling alliances (specifically the League of Nations).

• Kellogg-Bard Pact ($1928$): A largely symbolic agreement named after Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg to renounce war as a method for resolving international disputes.

The Impact of Fordism and Mass Media

• Assembly Line Production: Pioneered by Henry Ford; revolutionized production of automobiles, appliances, and radios, making products accessible to average Americans.

• Historical Perspective: Historian David E. Nye, in America's Assembly Line, notes the human cost: the loss of craftsmanship and individuality due to repetitive labor.

• Mass Media Platforms:   - Radio: Establishment of NBC in $1926$; the first coast-to-coast broadcast was the $1927$ Rose Bowl.   - Cinema: Transitioned from the silent era to "talkies"; saw the beginning of Walt Disney with Steamboat Willie.   - Cultural Unity: Media like the Grand Old Opry (WSMM in Nashville) nationalized regional traditions, such as Southern country music and the Harlem Renaissance.

Cultural Conflict: The Scopes Trial ($1925$)

• Alternative Name: Known as the "Monkey Trial."

• Location: Dayton, Tennessee.

• Core Issue: The legality of teaching evolution in public schools.

• Participants: Involved a legal battle between Clarence Darrow (defender of civil liberties/science) and William Jennings Bryan (devout Christian/populist).

The Great Depression: Origins and Causes

• Timeline: Spanned from $1929$ to the early $1940$s.

• Major Trigger: The New York Stock Exchange crash in October $1929$ was a symptom rather than the sole cause.

• Economic Anemia Theory: David M. Kennedy describes an underlying instability characterized by:   - Overproduction in industry and agriculture.   - Declining consumer demand.   - Flawed, decentralized banking systems ($5,000+$ bank failures).   - International trade wars spurred by protectionist tariffs (Fordney-McCumber in $1922$ and Smoot-Hawley in $1930$).   - The widening gap between rich and poor.

• Historical Comparison: Shares similarities with the Panic of $1893$ (bank failures, unemployment, contraction), though the $1893$ event was driven more by railroad over-expansion and the silver market.

Socio-Economic Devastation of the Depression

• Unemployment: Rates soared to between $25\%$ and $33\%$

• Business Failures: Over $30,000$ businesses went bankrupt.

• Societal Hardships: Widespread homelessness led to the emergence of "hobos" traveling for work and the formation of shanty towns.

• Dust Bowl: Triggered by over-plowing prairie grass in the $1920$s followed by severe drought in $1930$. Impacted five states (including eastern Colorado), leading to the "Okie" westward migration to California.

• Radical Politics: Discontent fueled the rise of the far-right (Fascism) and far-left (Socialist and Communist parties). Some Americans even immigrated to the Soviet Union.

Herbert Hoover's Response ($1928$-$1932$)

• Ranking: His C-SPAN ranking is number $36$.

• Background: Former mining engineer and millionaire; successfully managed the U.S. Food Administration during WWI.

• Core Belief: "Rugged Individualism" and "Volunteerism."

• Interventions: Supported the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Emergency Relief Construction Act, but refused direct "handouts" for individuals.

• Public Image: Viewed as lacking empathy. Terms of derision included:   - Hoovervilles: Shanty towns for the homeless.   - Hoover Blankets: Newspapers used for warmth.   - Hoover Flags: Empty pockets turned inside out.

• Bonus Army ($1932$): Unemployed WWI veterans marched on D.C. for early bonus payments. Hoover rejected them, and federal troops forcibly removed them, resulting in a public relations disaster.

• Foreign Policy: Stimson Doctrine declared the U.S. would not recognize territory taken by force (in response to Japan in Manchuria, $1931$).

Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Era ($1932$-$1945$)

• Elections: Elected four times starting in $1932$ with a landslide victory over Hoover.

• Ranking: C-SPAN ranking number $3$.

• Legacy: Often compared to Abraham Lincoln for his leadership through the Depression and WWII.

• New Deal Framework: Focused on the "Three Rs": Relief, Recovery, and Reform.

• Principles: Transitioned the U.S. toward a modern welfare state and a dominant Democratic Party coalition.

The First Hundred Days ($1933$)

• Timeline: March to June $1933$.

• Key Actions:   - Bank Holiday: Stabilized the financial structure in the first week.   - Fireside Chats: Radio addresses to communicate directly with the public.   - CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps): Job programs for young men.   - Glass-Steagall Act: Established the FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) to protect bank deposits.   - TVA (Tennessee Valley Authority): Provided flood control and electricity to the American South.   - 21st Amendment: Repealed Prohibition (the 18th Amendment).

Expanded New Deal Initiatives

• SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission): Established in $1934$ to regulate financial markets.

• AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Act): Provided subsidies to farmers to stabilize crop prices.

• REA (Rural Electrification Administration): Brought electricity to rural homes in the Midwest and West.

Critics of the New Deal

• Opposition from the Left:   - Huey Long: Louisiana Senator/Governor who proposed the "Share Our Wealth" society (radical wealth redistribution). He was assassinated in September $1935$.   - Father Charles Coglin: Detroit priest with a radio show who called for bank nationalization.

• Opposition from the Right:   - Conservative Coalition: Formed by Republicans and conservative Democrats (including the Liberty League).   - Herbert Hoover: Criticized New Deal "excesses," focusing on the three pillars of modern conservatism: Liberty, Limited Government, and Constitutionalism.

• Internal Conflicts: FDR’s "Court Packing Plan" ($1937$) aimed to expand the Supreme Court to favor New Deal laws but faced severe public backlash.

The Second New Deal ($1935$-$1938$)

• Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act): Guaranteed the right to collective bargaining and established the NLRB.

• Social Security Act ($1935$): Created a safety net for the elderly, disabled, and unemployed.

• Fair Labor Standards Act ($1938$): Established a federal minimum wage, a $44$-hour workweek, and prohibited oppressive child labor. Note: The minimum wage has been raised $22$ times, most recently in $2009$ to $7.25$.

African American History ($1920$-$1941$)

• Racial Violence: Persistent lynchings and intimidation by the KKK.

• Tulsa Race Massacre ($1921$): White mobs destroyed Greenwood ("Black Wall Street"), destroying over $1,250$ homes and creating a generational wealth gap.

• New Negro Movement/Harlem Renaissance: Artistic and literary watershed celebrating Black culture.   - Carter Godwin Woodson: Father of Black History; created Negro History Week in the $1920$s.   - Zora Neal Hurston: Anthropologist and writer who preserved linguistic traditions.

• Marcus Garvey: Founded the UNIA ($1914$ in Jamaica); largest Pan-African movement; influenced later Black Power movements.

• The Black Cabinet: FDR appointed advisors like Mary McLeod Bethune to champion anti-lynching laws and the abolition of the poll tax.

• Political Shift: In $1932$ and $1936$, many Black voters left the Republican Party (the party of Lincoln) for the Democrats.

Women's History and Marginalized Groups

• Political Milestone: 19th Amendment ratified in $1920$.

• The "New Woman": Rise of flappers, such as Louise Brooks (icon of the bobbed hairstyle).

• Social Shifts: Average children per family dropped from $7$ to $3$ in the $1920$s due to urbanization and increased birth control use.

• Labor Hardships: Case of the "Radium Girls" ($1928$) highlighted unsafe manufacturing conditions.

• Significant Figures:   - Eleanor Roosevelt: Redefined the role of First Lady through public service for women and minorities.   - Frances Perkins: First female cabinet member (Secretary of Labor).   - Molly Dusan: Industrial economist and party leader.   - Dorothy Lang: Documentary photographer; her "Migrant Mother" ($1936$) image became the symbol of the Great Depression.

• Indigenous People: Indian Citizenship Act ($1924$) granted birthright citizenship. The Indian Reorganization Act ($1934$) (the "Indian New Deal") reversed the Dawes Act, restored tribal governance, and was led by John Collier.

• Latino Americans: Suffered mass deportations under Hoover; supported by FDR’s New Deal programs like the CCC, WPA, and NYA.

• Asian Americans: Faced the "Oriental Exclusion Act" (Immigration Act of $1924$), which set quotas to zero. Japanese Americans ($Nisei$) established identities as U.S. citizens. Racial segregation was upheld in And Long V. Rice ($1927$).

• LGBTQ+ Community: Flourishing culture in urban hubs (Chicago, Harlem) in the $1920$s. Henry Gerber founded the Society for Human Rights ($1924$) in Chicago. Social conservatism and homophobia surged during the Depression.