History Graduation Exam Topics 2025/26 – Intermediate Level Study Guide

Consolidation of Royal Power under Charles I and the Visegrád Meeting

The period following the death of the last ruler of the Árpád House, $1301$, saw Hungary at the height of provincialism. Great landowners known as oligarchs, including Csák Máté, Kőszegi Henrik, and Subics Pál, created independent "petty kingdoms." These lords minted their own currency, conducted independent foreign policies, and controlled more than $50$ castles and influence over more than $20$ counties. Charles I (Caroberto), from the Neapolitan Anjou dynasty and great-grandson of King Stephen V, arrived in $1300$ with the support of the Pope and lords from the southern regions (Babonics, Frangepán families). His path to the throne was contested by Wenceslaus of Bohemia ($1301-1305$) and Otto of Bavaria ($1305-1307$). It was not until his third coronation in $1310$, performed with the Holy Crown, that his rule became legally unquestionable.

Following his coronation, Charles I began the military dismantling of provincial power. He defeated the Aba family at the Battle of Rozgony in $1312$ and subsequently neutralized Borsa Kopasz, Kán László, and the Kőszegi family. The most powerful lord, Csák Máté, remained active until his death in $1821$, after which his territories in Northeastern Hungary were returned to the crown. By approximately $1324$, the era of provincialism was declared over. Economic stability was restored through the reforms of Nekcsei Demeter. Since Hungary provided $75\%$ of Europe’s gold production between $1330$ and $1380$, the mining regal reform allowed landowners to open mines if they retained one-third of the mining rent ($\text{urbura}$), with the remaining two-thirds going to the king. A precious metal monopoly mandated that all mined metals be sold to royal chambers at a $40\%$ profit for the treasury. In $1325$, the first gold florin ($\text{aranyforint}$) was minted based on the Florentine pattern, where $\text{1 gold florin} = 16 \text{ silver groschen} = 96 \text{ silver denars}$. New taxes were introduced: the gate tax ($\text{kapuadó}$) in $1336$, requiring $18 \text{ denars}$ from every gate large enough for a hay wagon, and the thirtieth customs ($\text{harmincadvám}$) for foreign trade.

Foreign policy was marked by both tragedy and regional cooperation. In Italy, Charles’s son Andrew became the heir to the Neapolitan throne but was murdered by his wife, Joanna. In the Balkans, the $1330$ campaign against Voivode Basarab of Wallachia ended in defeat at the Battle of Posada. However, the Central European front was successful. In $1335$, the Meeting of Kings took place in Visegrád, attended by Charles I, John I of Bohemia, and Casimir III of Poland. They brokered peace between Bohemia and Poland, and planned a trade route avoiding Vienna (though merchants still preferred the Danube route). In $1339$, they agreed that Louis, son of Charles I, would inherit the Polish throne, which occurred in $1370$. Upon his death in $1342$, Charles I left a unified, economically strengthened kingdom to his son, Louis the Great.

The First and Second Industrial Revolutions

The Industrial Revolution represents a qualitative shift in production from manufactories to the factory system. The first or "classical" wave ($1780-1860$) began in England due to four primary factors: the enclosure movement provided excess labor and capital from productive farms, the vast colonial empire provided raw materials and markets, the bourgeois revolution ensured the freedom of enterprise, and an established banking system was available. Key inventions included James Watt’s improved steam engine ($1769$), John Kay’s flying shuttle ($1733$), James Hargreaves’s Spinning Jenny ($1764$), and Edmund Cartwright’s power loom ($1785$). In the iron industry, Darby introduced the coking process in $1709$, while transportation was revolutionized by George Stephenson’s steam locomotive in $1814$, leading to the first railway line between Stockton and Darlington in $1825$.

The second wave of the industrial revolution ($1860-1945$) saw the United States, Germany, and Japan overtake Britain and France by utilizing the newest technologies. Steel production was modernized by the Bessemer process ($1856$) and the Siemens-Martin process ($1864$). Electricity emerged as a transformative force with Thomas Edison’s carbon filament lightbulb ($1879$), Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone ($1876$), and Puskás Tivadar’s telephone exchange ($1878$). Communication was furthered by Marconi’s radio ($1897$). In transportation, Carl Benz built the first practical automobile in $1886$, and the Wright brothers achieved the first motorized flight in $1903$. The chemical industry advanced with fertilizer and plastics production. Socially, these changes led to massive urbanization and the rise of the industrial working class, who faced harsh conditions ($14-16$ hour workdays and child labor), prompting the rise of socialist and communist ideologies. Simultaneously, the bourgeoisie gained significant economic and political power.

Political and Economic Consolidation in Hungary in the 1920s

After the collapse of the Soviet Republic in August $1919$, temporary governments (Peidl, Friedrich, Huszár) attempted to restore order. In January $1920$, the first free elections were won by the Smallholders' Party. On March $1$, $1920$, Miklós Horthy was elected Regent of Hungary, and on June $4$, $1920$, the Treaty of Trianon was signed, stripping the country of two-thirds of its territory. The government of Pál Teleki ($1920-1921$) took stabilizing steps, including the dissolution of right-wing paramilitary groups (Héjjas, Prónay) and the introduction of the Numerus Clausus ($1920$), which limited Jewish enrollment in universities. A land reform affecting $2 \times 10^{6}$ people was enacted, though large estates remained largely intact.

István Bethlen served as Prime Minister from $1921$ to $1931$, conducting a "two-front" battle against democrats and right-wing radicals. In $1921$, he signed the Bethlen-Peyer Pact with the Social Democrats (MSZDP) to ensure their participation within strict limits. He formed the Unified Party in $1922$, restricted voting rights, and restored open voting. In $1926$, a conservative Upper House of Parliament was established. Economically, Hungary joined the League of Nations in $1922$. After establishing the Hungarian National Bank in $1924$, the country received a League of Nations loan of $250 \times 10^{6} \text{ gold crowns}$ to stop inflation. The Pengő replaced the Crown in $1927$. That same year, the signing of the Italian-Hungarian treaty broke Hungary's international isolation, ending permanent military supervision.

The Development of Medieval Cities

Medieval cities emerged between the $10 \text{th}$ and $13 \text{th}$ centuries in Northern Italy, France, Flanders, and the Baltic, driven by agricultural surplus and trade. They were often built on Roman sites, near castles, or at river crossings and road junctions. Average cities housed $4 \times 10^{3}$ to $5 \times 10^{3}$ people, while large cities exceeded $10 \times 10^{3}$. Urban legal rights included self-governance ($\text{the commune}$), free election of judges, the right to hold markets, and the lump-sum payment of taxes. The phrase "City air makes you free" referred to the rule that a serf living in a city for a year and a day gained their freedom.

Urban society was hierarchical. Patricians (wealthy families) controlled the city council and mayoralty, while the majority consisted of the "plebs" without citizenship rights. External residents ($\text{metoikoi}$) were free but lacked rights. Guilds, protective organizations for craftsmen of the same trade, appeared in the $13 \text{th}$ century. They regulated prices, quality, quantities, and the number of apprentices. The path to becoming a master required years as an apprentice and journeyman, followed by the creation of a "masterwork." Those outside guilds were hunted as "hacks." Major trade routes included the Levantine trade (Venice, Genoa, Pisa) and the Hanseatic League (Lübeck, Hamburg) in the North. The Champagne fairs in France served as the primary link between these regions.

Hungary's Population in the 18th Century

Following the Turkish occupation and Rákóczi’s War of Independence, Hungary faced a demographic crisis at the start of the $18 \text{th}$ century, with a population of only $4 \times 10^{6}$. The Habsburg government initiated a organized settlement policy to inhabit the depopulated Great Plain and Southern regions. Swabian (German) settlers arrived in waves during the $1720 \text{s}$, $1740 \text{s}$, and $1760 \text{s}$. In $1690$, led by Patriarch Arsenije Čarnojević, roughly $35 \times 10^{3}$ to $40 \times 10^{3}$ Serbs fled the Turks and settled in the Southern borderlands with internal autonomy. Romanians gradually migrated into Transylvania.

By $1787$, natural growth and immigration more than doubled the population to $9.5 \times 10^{6}$. However, the proportion of ethnic Hungarians dropped to approximately $39-40\%$. The country remained agricultural, dominated by serfdom. To stabilize state revenue and reduce tensions, Empress Maria Theresa issued the Urbarium (Urbéri Pátens) in $1767$. This recorded all serf holdings and standardized services, mandating $52$ days of animal-drawn labor ($\text{igás robot}$) or $104$ days of manual labor ($\text{gyalog robot}$) per year for a full plot. This act defined serf rights and halted landlord exploitation.

The Rákosi Era and the Kádár System

The Rákosi era ($1947-1956$) began with the fraudulent "blue ballot" elections of $1947$. By $1948$, the Communist and Social Democratic parties merged into the Hungarian Working People's Party (MDP). A Stalinist constitution was adopted in $1949$. The system was characterized by terror under the State Protection Authority (ÁVH), show trials (Rajk, Mindszenty), and forced deportations to labor camps like Recsk. Economic policy focused on forced heavy industrialization at the expense of consumer goods, and the violent collectivization of agriculture into Soviet-style kolkhozes. This led to a dramatic drop in living standards. The only area of non-political success was sports, with the "Golden Team" winning the $1952$ Olympics and defeating England $6:3$ at Wembley in $1953$.

After the suppression of the $1956$ Revolution, János Kádár and the MSZMP stabilized the party-state. The "Kádár Compromise" shifted the political principle from "He who is not with us is against us" to "He who is not against us is with us" (after $1962$). Citizens were expected to remain politically indifferent in exchange for rising living standards, a phenomenon known as "Goulash Communism" or "Fridge Socialism." Collectivization was completed ($1959-1961$), but members could keep small household plots, which produced $20\%$ of agricultural value. The New Economic Mechanism of $1968$ introduced market elements but was halted in $1972$. Cultural policy was governed by György Aczél’s "Three Ts": Support ($\text{Támogatás}$), Tolerate ($\text{Tűrés}$), and Prohibit ($\text{Tiltás}$). By the $1980 \text{s}$, the cost of maintaining this lifestyle led to massive national debt.

The Reform Era and the 1848 Revolution

The Reform Era ($1830-1848$) was defined by the goal of "Homeland and Progress," a phrase coined by Ferenc Kölcsey. It was sparked by István Széchenyi’s book Credit ($\text{Hitel}$) in $1830$. Széchenyi, "the Greatest Hungarian," focused on economic development and moderate reforms like the Chain Bridge and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences ($1825$). Lajos Kossuth took a more radical stance in the Pesti Hírlap ($1841$), advocating for compulsory land redemption, general taxation, and legal equality. Important legislative gains included the voluntary land redemption ($1836$) and making Hungarian the official state language ($1843-1844$).

The revolution broke out in Pest on March $15$, $1848$, led by the "Young Marchers" (Petőfi, Jókai), who presented the $12 \text{ Points}$. The April Laws created a modern Hungary by abolishing serfdom, ending tax exemptions for the nobility, ensuring freedom of the press, and establishing a responsible ministry under Lajos Batthyány. This ended the feudal era and established a representative parliamentary system.

Matthias Hunyadi: Centralized Royal Power

Matthias Hunyadi, son of János Hunyadi, was elected king in $1458$. After purchasing the Holy Crown from Frederick III for $80 \times 10^{3} \text{ florins}$, he was crowned in $1464$. He crushed internal opposition, including the $1467$ tax revolt and the $1471$ conspiracy of Vitéz János and Janus Pannonius. His fiscal reforms replaced the gate tax with chimney money ($\text{füstpénz}$) and renamed the thirtieth customs to the crown customs to eliminate previous exemptions. His annual revenue reached $500 \times 10^{3}$ to $750 \times 10^{3} \text{ gold florins}$. He established a professional standing army, the Black Army, consisting of $15 \times 10^{3}$ to $20 \times 10^{3}$ mercenaries.

Externally, Matthias maintained a defensive stance against the Turks while pursuing territorial gains in the West to secure the Holy Roman Imperial title. He conquered Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia (Peace of Olomouc, $1479$) and captured Vienna in $1845$. His Renaissance court at Buda and Visegrád attracted Italian scholars. The Bibliotheca Corviniana contained $2 \times 10^{3}$ to $2.5 \times 10^{3} \text{ volumes}$, the second largest library in Europe at the time. Matthias died in $1490$ in Vienna without a legitimate heir.

The German Occupation and the Holocaust in Hungary

Discrimination began with the Numerus Clausus ($1920$) and intensified with the first ($1938$), second ($1939$), and third ($1941$) Jewish Laws, the latter of which prohibited marriage and sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews. Forced labor service ($\text{munkaszolgálat}$) was introduced in $1941$. On March $19$, $1944$, Germany occupied Hungary. Adolf Eichmann arrived to organize the "Final Solution," aided by Hungarian officials László Baky and László Endre. Jews were forced to wear yellow stars from April $5$, and ghettoization began on April $7$.

From May $15$ to July $9$, $1944$, a total of $437 \times 10^{3}$ people were deported to Auschwitz via $147$ trains. Regent Horthy halted deportations on July $7$ due to international pressure and the Allied landings in Normandy. After the Arrow Cross (Nyilas) coup on October $15$, $1944$, terror intensified. Thousands were shot into the Danube or sent on death marches toward the West. The Budapest Ghetto, housing $70 \times 10^{3}$ people, was liberated on January $18$, $1945$. Out of $825 \times 10^{3}$ Jews in Hungary in $1941$, approximately $500 \times 10^{3}$ to $600 \times 10^{3}$ perished. Rescuers included Carl Lutz, Raoul Wallenberg, Angelo Rotta, Sztehló Gábor, and Éliás József.

Athenian Democracy

Athenian democracy developed in several stages. Draco ($621 \text{ BC}$) codified laws, Solon ($594 \text{ BC}$) abolished debt-slavery through the "shaking off of burdens" ($\text{seisachtheia}$) and created a wealth-based (timocratic) constitution. Peisistratus established a tyranny ($560-510 \text{ BC}$) that supported the common people ($\text{demos}$). Cleisthenes ($508 \text{ BC}$) reorganized the state into $10$ territorial tribes ($\text{phylae}$) to break aristocratic power and introduced ostracism ($\text{ostrakismos}$). Pericles ($444-429 \text{ BC}$) introduced daily fees for public service, allowing poorer citizens to participate.

Governmental bodies included the Assembly ($\text{ekklesia}$), which met $40$ times a year for all male citizens over $20$. The Council of $500$ ($\text{boule}$) prepared the agenda, and the Jury Court ($\text{heliaia}$) consisted of $6 \times 10^{3}$ members. Strategies ($\text{strategoi}$) were elected, while most other officials were chosen by lot. The population included $150 \times 10^{3}$ citizens, $75 \times 10^{3} \text{ metics}$ (free foreigners), and $100 \times 10^{3} \text{ slaves}$. Women were excluded from political rights.

The Austro-Hungarian Compromise (1867)

Following the defeat at Königgrätz in $1866$, the Austrian Empire sought compromise with the Hungarians. The Dual Monarchy established in $1867$ was a real union. Common affairs included Foreign Policy, War, and Finance to cover them. Each parliament sent a delegation of $60$ members to oversee these common ministries. Hungary's quota of common expenses was initially $30\%$, rising to $36\%$ by $1908$. The economic treaty, which ensured a shared customs zone and currency, was renegotiated every $10$ years. The common army ($\text{K. u. K.}$) of $800 \times 10^{3}$ used German as the language of command, though a separate Hungarian Home Defense ($\text{Magyar Honvédség}$) of $100 \times 10^{3}$ was also established.

István Deák defended the Compromise as a realistic necessity, while Lajos Kossuth, in his "Cassandra Letter," warned that tying Hungary to a dying empire would lead to national disaster. Despite political friction and restrictive voting laws (open voting and wealth census), the era between $1867$ and $1918$ was one of Hungary's most dynamic periods of growth.

Establishment of the Christian Hungarian Kingdom

Grand Prince Géza ($972-997$) began the transition by sending envoys to Otto I at Quedlinburg in $1873$ and initiating Christianization. He established Esztergom as the capital and professionalized the army with Western knights. His son, Stephen (Vajk), inherited under the principle of primogeniture in $997$. He defeated the pagan rebel Koppány, who claimed the throne via seniority. Stephen was crowned on December $25$, $1000$ (or January $1$, $1001$) with a crown sent by Pope Sylvester II.

Stephen unified the Carpathian Basin by defeating Gyula of Transylvania ($1003$) and Ajtony ($1008$ or $1028$). He established the county system ($30-45 \text{ counties}$) headed by royal bailiffs ($\text{ispán}$) who kept one-third of collected taxes. Church organization included the founding of two archdioceses (Esztergom and Kalocsa) and eight bishoprics. Laws mandated that every $10$ villages build a church and pay a tithe ($\text{tized}$). After the death of his heir, Imre, in $1031$, Stephen blinded his rival Vázul and designated Peter Orseolo as successor. Stephen died in $1038$ and was canonized in $1083$.

Reforms of Maria Theresa and Joseph II

Maria Theresa ($1740-1780$) secured her throne with Hungarian support in $1741$ ("$vitam et sanguinem$"). Her $1754$ customs decree created an internal customs barrier between Hungary and the hereditary provinces, encouraging agricultural specialization in Hungary and industry in Austria. The $1767$ Urbarium protected serfs, and the Ratio Educationis ($1777$) standardized the school system for children aged $7-13$. Joseph II ($1780-1790$), the "Hatless King," refused to be crowned to avoid swearing to the feudal constitution. His Patent of Toleration ($1781$) granted rights to Protestants and Jews. His Serf Patent ($1785$) ended perpetual serfdom (allowing marriage and movement). However, his Language Decree ($1784$) making German the official language and his administrative centralization caused such resistance that he withdrew most reforms on his deathbed.

The Soviet Union and Nazi Germany

In the Soviet Union, Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power in October $1917$. After a period of War Communism ($1918-1921$), the New Economic Policy (NEP) restored partial market functions until Stalin’s "Great Turn" in $1928$. Stalin instituted forced collectivization, resulting in the Holodomor (famine) in Ukraine in $1932-1933$ that killed millions. Five-year plans prioritized heavy industry. The Great Terror ($1936-1938$) and the Gulag system eliminated all opposition through show trials. In Germany, the Great Depression ($1929$) led to the rise of the NSDAP. Hitler became Chancellor on January $30$, $1933$. The Enabling Act ($1933$) gave him dictatorial powers. Nazy ideology was based on social Darwinism, the "Aryan" master race theory, and the need for living space ($\text{Lebensraum}$) in the East. Persecution of Jews progressed from the Nuremberg Laws ($1935$) to the organized violence of Kristallnacht ($1938$). Hitler solved unemployment by $1939$ through massive armament and public works (autobahns).

International Conflict: Exploration, WWI, and Cold War

The Age of Discovery was driven by the loss of Eastern trade routes to the Ottomans and Timur. Key figures included Bartolomeo Diaz (Cape of Good Hope, $1487$), Vasco da Gama (India, $1498$), and Christopher Columbus (America, $1492$). The Treaty of Tordesillas ($1494$) divided the new world along the $45^{\circ} \text{ W}$ line. This led to an "Price Revolution" (inflation) due to the influx of precious metals. World War I ($1914-1918$) was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June $28$, $1914$. It evolved from a war of movement to a total machine war characterized by trenches, chemical weapons, and million-man battles (Verdun, $1916$). The Treaty of Trianon (June $4$, $1920$) was devastating for Hungary, which lost $2/3$ of its territory and resident population, leaving $3.3 \times 10^{6}$ Hungarians in successor states.

The Cold War began as the WWII alliance dissolved at the Potsdam Conference ($1945$). Churchill warned of an "Iron Curtain" in $1946$. The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan ($1947$, $17 \times 10^{9}$) sought to contain communism. This led to two economic blocs (OECC vs. KGST) and two military blocs (NATO, $1949$ vs. Warsaw Pact, $1955$). Germany was split into West (NSZK) and East (NDK) in $1949$ following the Berlin Blockade. The era was marked by the arms race, space race, and proxy conflicts (Korea, Vietnam) until the keystone events of $1989-1991$ signaled the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the Soviet Union.