Historical Foundations of Europe: From Antiquity to the 14th Century

Geographic Context in European History

• Maintaining a vigilant eye on geographic context is essential for understanding historical developments.

• Connecting the ever-changing political map of Europe to specific events provides a visual cue for grounding historical content.

• Internalizing the locations of major regions and nations is necessary for high-level performance and comprehension of the subject matter.

The Ancient and Medieval Inheritance

• While the formal study of European history for certain examinations begins in $1450$, general knowledge of the ancient and medieval world is vital.

• Understanding the Renaissance fascination with classical values is impossible without familiarity with ancient Greece and Rome.

Trends Associated with the Rise of Europe

• Prior to $1300$, Europe's political power and cultural accomplishments were significantly lesser than other major world civilizations.

• In $1300$, the term "Europe" was not in common usage; the continent was primarily referred to as "Christendom."

• The use of the term "Europe" coincides with the modern age and the rise of the continent as a major civilization.

Heritage of the Ancient World: Greek Civilization

• Greek civilization flourished from approximately $1000\,BCE$ until its conquest by Rome in $146\,BCE$.

• Greek contributions in philosophy, science, architecture, drama, and history became the standard reference point for European civilization.

• Fifth-century $BCE$ Athens is cited as a unique place of greatness where human accomplishment defined excellence.

• Philosophy: Greek thinkers used reason to explore fundamental questions such as "What is the most real?", "What is the good?", and "What is a just society?" Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle established principles that dominated academic fields until the sixteenth century.

• Politics: Though restricted to free, property-owning males, the Greek model of democracy and active civic life inspired Renaissance humanists and future revolutionaries.

• History: Herodotus and Thucydides moved history away from mythology and divine providence, emphasizing social and political forces as the causes of events. They wrote to edify and warn against human pride and folly.

• Drama and Poetry: Literary works served as mirrors to society's faults. The tragedies of Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, and the comedies of Aristophanes, influenced literature with complex plots and thematic depth. Lyric poetry began with Pindar and Sappho.

• Science and Mathematics: Aristotle defined physics, astronomy, zoology, and anatomy for centuries. Greek contributions to mathematics, specifically geometry from Pythagoras and Euclid, were immense.

• Classical Aesthetics: The most lasting impact was the emphasis on balance, symmetry, and order in art and architecture, evident in the sculptural focus on the human form and the harmony of civic buildings.

Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age

• The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta weakened the city-states, allowing for Macedonian conquest.

• Alexander the Great spread Greek civilization through southeastern Europe and the Middle East, reaching near India.

• After Alexander's death in $323\,BCE$, the subsequent two centuries, known as the Hellenistic Age, saw a synthesis of Greek ideas with those of surrounding regions.

Roman Civilization

• Rome was founded in $753\,BCE$ and became an empire ruling the entire Mediterranean basin by the second century $CE$.

• Rome's initial importance was spreading Greek ideas following the conquest of the Balkan Peninsula in $146\,BCE$.

• Integration: Rome integrated new ethnic groups by extending citizenship and conferring the benefits of Roman civilization.

• Administration and Law: Rome transitioned from a republic to an empire due to internal conflict and military despots. The empire established a uniform legal code and centralized power, serving as a goal for rulers after the Western empire fell in $476\,CE$ (though the Eastern or Byzantine Empire continued until $1453$).

• Architecture and Infrastructure: Romans established an urban culture through roads, aqueducts, and public buildings. Ruins of these structures provided a legacy for later imitation, such as during the Renaissance.

• The Pax Romana: For nearly half a millennium, the Roman peace provided political order, active public life, and a thriving cultural setting. It persisted despite third-century challenges like barbarian invasions and demographic decline.

Christianity and Its Influence on European Identity

• Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth century and reached its final missionary outpost in the Eastern Baltic by the fourteenth century.

• The Soul: Belief in individual immortality and a moral structure transcending the material world altered the perception of the person.

• Individual Dignity: The concept that individuals are "created in the image of God" provided a moral basis for law and a check on political absolutism.

• Monotheism: The early Church defined the doctrine of the Holy Trinity—three persons (Father, Son, Holy Spirit) in one substance.

• St. Augustine ($354$-$430\,CE$): His writings emphasized the city of God over the city of man, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of spiritual authority over temporal power.

• Caesaropapism: Unlike the Eastern Empire where political and spiritual authority were fused, Latin Christianity saw these authorities develop separately. This split resulted in controversies but also created zones for political diversity and corporate liberties checked by both powers.

The Early Middle Ages ($476$-ca. $1050$)

• This period, sometimes called the "Dark Ages," saw the depopulation of cities, decay of roads, and the replacement of the Roman Empire with Germanic kingdoms.

• Barbarian Invasions: Central Asian migrations pushed tribes into Europe. While many were assimilated, they eventually diluted Roman culture. The last Western emperor was deposed in $476$ by a barbarian leader.

• Latin vs. Greek Christianity: The Eastern and Western halves of the empire grew apart. The Byzantine Empire (centered in Constantinople, now Istanbul) retained a Greek cultural accent. Theological disputes led to the formal Schism of $1054$ between the Catholic and Orthodox branches.

• The Islamic World: Emerging in the $620s$, Islam quickly dominated parts of Asia, North Africa, and southern Europe. Arabs preserved Greek/Roman learning and contributed to algebra, Arabic numerals, astronomy, and medicine. Muslims have been in Europe since the eighth century as "people of the Book."

• Germanic Customs: Barbarian culture emphasized loyalty to persons rather than abstract legal institutions. This provided freedom but at the cost of political and economic unity.

• Monasteries: Beginning in the fifth century under the discipline of St. Benedict (ca. $480$-$543$), monasteries preserved ancient texts and developed communal products like champagne and pretzels.

• Charlemagne: A Frankish king crowned emperor in $800$ by the pope. He established a capital at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) and led a mini-Renaissance of learning before his death in $814$.

• Second Wave of Invasions: In the ninth century, Norse (Scandinavia), Magyars (Asia), and Muslim pirates threatened the European heartland. By $1000$, these groups were largely incorporated and converted to Christianity.

The High Middle Ages (ca. $1050$-$1300$)

• This era was a dynamic synthesis of Greek/Roman, Christian, and barbarian cultures.

• Agriculture: Innovations like the three-crop field rotation, iron plow, horse collar, and windmills led to a surplus and population growth. By $1300$, Europe's population peaked at $75$ million, double the level of $1000$.

• Feudalism: A decentralized system of contractual obligations. Lords provided protection in exchange for labor and loyalty from peasants and serfs. Society was divided into those who fought (nobles/knights), those who prayed (clergy), and those who worked (peasants/artisans).

• Towns and Commerce: Towns grew outside the feudal structure, governed by charters. The Hanse (German trading centers in the Baltic) was a notable league. Guilds controlled production and ensured quality. The growth of cities led to the decline of serfdom in favor of a money-oriented economy.

• National Monarchies: Early bureaucracy and representative government began. The Magna Carta in $1215$ limited the English king's power and eventually led to Parliament.

• The Church: At its peak of influence, the papacy vied with the Holy Roman Emperor for power. Innocent III ($1198$-$1216$) attempted to unify the Christian world. The Fourth Lateran Council ($1215$) formalized sacraments and regulated clergy behavior (the Cluniac movement).

• Gender Roles: Noblewomen managed manors and arranged defenses during war. Others joined convents for intellectual freedom. Chivalry and courtly love centered women in culture. Women were also active in guilds and agricultural labor.

• Universities and Scholasticism: The first universities were founded in the early thirteenth century. Scholasticism, led by St. Thomas Aquinas, synthesized Aristotle’s logic with Christian dogma.

• The Crusades: Beginning in $1095$, these military efforts aimed to reclaim the Holy Land. While marred by atrocities and the sack of Constantinople in $1204$, they demonstrated European assertiveness and stimulated exploration.

The Upheavals of the 14th Century

• Famine and Plague: The Great Famine ($1315$-$1317$) and the Black Death ($1348$-$1351$) devastated the continent. The bubonic plague killed upwards of $40\%$ of the population.

• Social and Psychological Impact: Fleas on rats spread the disease. Flagellants whipped themselves to appease God's perceived wrath. Jews were persecuted in Nuremberg. Art featured the danse macabre. The Church lost over $60\%$ of its top clergy.

• Economic Shifts: The labor shortage undermined feudalism, allowing peasants to bargain for cash payments and lifetime tenures.

• Revolts: Peasants and urban workers revolted against reasserted noble power (e.g., the Jacquerie in $1358$ in France, Wat Tyler’s revolt in $1381$ in England, and revolts in Florence).

• Hundred Years War ($1337$-$1453$): A dynastic conflict between England and France. Massed infantry with longbows defeated heavy mounted knights. Joan of Arc broke the siege of Orleans in $1429$ but was burned for witchcraft. England was eventually left with only the city of Calais.

• Church Crisis: The papacy lived in exile in France during the Babylonian Captivity ($1307$). The subsequent Great Schism ($1378$-$1417$) featured rival popes. Reformers John Wyclif and John Hus challenged Church wealth and power. Hus was burned in $1415$.

The Setting of the Renaissance in Italy

• Italy led the Renaissance for three primary reasons:

• Geography: Italy was a Mediterranean trade crossroads and the center of ancient Roman culture. Humanists fled the declining Byzantine Empire (which fell to the Turks in $1453$) and brought ideas to Italy.

• Urbanization: While only $10\%$ of Europeans lived in cities, up to $25\%$ of Italians were urban dwellers, fostering a participatory civic culture.

• Social Factors: A new elite emerged through the blending of cash-strapped aristocrats and wealthy merchants, where world achievement and wealth outweighed lineage.