8-3 psych my

The term "intelligence" can describe a behavior or an individual.
- Example: A person deciding to quit smoking is making an intelligent choice.
Defining intelligence in relation to a person can be complex due to cultural variations.
- Cultural Definitions:
- European Americans: Generally associate intelligence with reasoning and thinking skills.
- Kenyans: Value responsible participation in family and social life as part of intelligence.
- Ugandans: Consider someone intelligent if they know what to do and follow through with appropriate action.
- Papua New Guineans: View the ability to remember 10,000-20,000 clan names as intelligence.
- Caroline Islanders: Include stellar navigation skills in their definition of intelligence.
The definition of intelligence influences how we evaluate individuals' capabilities.
- Robert Sternberg (2019): Proposes thinking of intelligence as the capacity to succeed in culturally dependent contexts. This creates a circular definition, equating intelligence directly with success.
Historical context reveals a troubling past associated with intelligence measurement techniques.
- Eugenics: The belief of improving the human species by selective breeding based on perceived intelligence. Early psychologists supported such views, including Charles Spearman in 1921, who suggested limitations for voting and reproduction based on intelligence levels.

General Intelligence Concept (g):
- Charles Spearman (1904): Noted the correlation between cognitive abilities; thus, developed the idea that general intelligence underlies performance across various domains (math, verbal skills, reasoning).
IQ (Intelligence Quotient):
- A score derived from standardized tests measuring cognitive abilities.

Validity:
- The extent to which a test measures what it's supposed to measure (i.e., intelligence).
- An example of criterion validity is if IQ tests predict school grades or job performance.
Reliability:
- The consistency of test scores over time.
- A test can be reliable but not valid. Example: If eye color were a measure of intelligence, it would be reliable due to its unchanging nature, but it is not valid as it has no correlation to intelligence.
Standardization:
- Involves uniform procedures for administering and scoring tests.
- Norms are established by administering tests to a representative sample of the population, creating benchmarks for performance.

Alfred Binet (1905):
- Developed an intelligence test for the French Education system; it included tasks ranging from basic actions to abstract definitions.
- Established concepts of mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA).
Intelligence Quotient Formula (William Stern, 1912):
- $IQ = \frac{MA}{CA} \times 100$
- Where an average IQ is set at 100.
Wexler Scales:
- Developed by David Wexler in 1939 with variations for adults (WAIS), children (WISC), and preschoolers (WPPSI).
- Include measures for different cognitive capacities such as verbal comprehension and working memory.

IQ scores generally follow a normal distribution,
- Bell-shaped curve representing the frequency of scores,
- Majority of scores cluster around the middle, with fewer scores at the extremes.

Early intelligence tests often favored individuals from non-Latino white backgrounds, urban settings, and middle socioeconomic status.
- Example of bias: A question about calling the police may not apply universally to a child in a rural area, and biased expectations may influence test responses.
Development of culture-fair tests:
- Designed to minimize cultural bias by including non-verbal components or universally familiar questions.

Genetic Influence:
- Intelligence is thought to be around 50% heritable based on twin studies.
- Heritability:
- Describes the proportion of variance in the trait (intelligence) that can be attributed to genetic differences in a population.
Dynamic Relationship:
- While genes influence intelligence, environmental factors significantly shape cognitive abilities.

Dietary Supplements:
- Certain vitamins and omega-3 fatty acids can enhance IQ.
Educational Interventions:
- Access to preschool, early childhood education, and manner of engagement significantly affect intelligence scores.
Flynn Effect:
- Rise in IQ scores over generations attributed to improved education, nutrition, and access to information.

Disparities in IQ scores can be controversial, particularly when examined through the lens of genetic factors.
- Studies indicate that socioeconomic status, rather than genetic background, plays a critical role in influencing IQ.
Critiques of Genetic Arguments:
- Race does not accurately reflect genetic differences; social and environmental conditions significantly influence intelligence scores.

Individuals with an IQ of 130 or above often display exceptional talent and achievement.
- Studies have shown they are more likely to pursue advanced education and excel in various fields.

Defined as a condition with limited cognitive functioning in areas such as:
- Conceptual skills: language, memory, reasoning.
- Social skills: empathy, communication.
- Practical skills: daily life management.
Organic Causes:
- Resulting from brain damage or genetic disorders (e.g., Down syndrome).
Cultural-Familial Causes:
- Cognitive limitations without evident organic reasons, often linked to social factors.

Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory:
- Asserts three forms of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical.
Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences:
- Suggests nine types of intelligence, emphasizing various strengths in vocation and life skills:
- Verbal, Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, Existential.

These theories encourage educators to think broadly about children's competencies but are critiqued for lack of concrete evidence and possible overreach in defining intelligence.

Engaging in challenging physical and cognitive activities can improve reasoning and cognitive performances over time.
Important to continuously seek challenging experiences to foster intelligence.

Assessment Questions:
1. Define validity, reliability, and standardization in terms of intelligence testing.
2. What are the terms used to describe individuals at the high and low end of the intelligence spectrum?
3. How does Spearman's concept of g compare to theories of multiple intelligences?