Notes on Abstracts and Academic Research

General Information & Communication

Achieve Access: Students need their password to log in, which is emailed to them.
Contacting Authors: It is possible and often fruitful to directly contact authors of published papers, even years after publication, to obtain further information or clarification. An anecdote was shared where the speaker successfully emailed an author $10$ years after their paper was published and received a response.

The Impact of Form on Content: Font Studies

Morell's Question: Theorist Earl Morell posed the question, "Can we separate the form of writing from its content?" He argued that we don't just read words, but also perceive letters, typefaces, and the shapes of words on a page, suggesting these visual elements might be part of the meaning. This led to the question: Do we more readily accept sentences written in one typeface as true over another?
Phil Renaud's Pilot Study: A Canadian blogger and university student, Phil Renaud, conducted an initial study. He submitted uniformly good college essays written in different fonts (sans serif, Times Roman, Georgia) and observed variations in average grades (B $-, A, A$ -). However, with only $52$ papers (all different), this was deemed a good pilot study but insufficient for reliable data.
- Pilot Study Definition: A preliminary study conducted to identify potential correlations or trends that warrant further, more rigorous testing. It is not the definitive testing itself.
- Caution on Small Sample Sizes: News reports based on very small sample sizes (e.g., testing $6$ people) indicate that more research will be done, but do not yield conclusive findings due to the high likelihood of outliers and unreliable data.
Morris's New York Times Experiment: To obtain more reliable data, Morris collaborated with the New York Times, distributing parts of his blog equally in $6$ different fonts (excluding Times Roman, a classic but hard-to-read newspaper font). He surveyed $45,000$ readers on their optimism regarding asteroid strikes.
- Reliable Sample Sizes: For statistically sound results, a minimum of $50$ test subjects is needed; ideally, at least $100$ , and robust studies often require $1,000$ or more.
- Statistical Validation: The results were verified by Dr. David Dunning of Cornell University, who noted a $p$ -value of $.0083$ , indicating high reliability (the calculation and significance of $p$ -values will be covered in statistics courses).
Profound Implications of Font Choice: Subsequent tests at three major medical universities found a direct correlation between the font used for medication instructions and labeling, and patient understanding and willingness to use the drug.
- Ethical and Practical Context: This has critical implications for public safety, particularly in pharmaceuticals. An anecdote highlighted the speaker's second ex-wife being a pharmaceutical cleanser, emphasizing the life-or-death consequences of clarity in medical instructions; even slight misunderstandings due to unclear communication can be fatal.

Introduction to Abstracts

Speaker: John Kotnorski from the National University of Science and Technology (NUS) Academic Writing Center.
Increasing Importance: Abstract writing is a vital subgenre of academic writing due to the massive volume of new publications annually. As it's impractical to read every new publication, abstracts serve as a critical tool for researchers and scholars to share, process, and organize information efficiently.
Video Objectives: This video aims to:
- Define "abstract."
- Provide an overview of different types of abstracts.
- Explain the various purposes of journal article abstracts.
- Analyze the structure of a common type: the informative abstract.
- Offer tips and techniques for writing abstracts.

What is an Abstract?

Definition: An abstract is a concise, self-contained summary of a longer work, designed to reduce lengthy research to its essential elements and stand alone without requiring the full text.

Different Types and Purposes of Abstracts

Broader Applications: The term "abstract" is used for concise overviews in various contexts beyond journal articles, including:
- Research grant applications.
- Proposals for books, book chapters, conference talks, or papers.
- Summaries for theses or dissertations.
Journal Abstracts: A highly common form, used by researchers when submitting new publications to academic journals (print or online).
Purposes of Journal Abstracts (Dr. Thomas Huckin, University of Utah): Journal abstracts serve at least four key functions:
1. Stand-alone Mini-Texts: They provide a brief overview of a research study, including its topic, methodology, and main results.
2. Screening Devices: They offer a concise synopsis, enabling readers to quickly decide whether the full article is relevant enough to read. This is crucial for students determining if a multi-page article is useful for their papers and if so, which sections to prioritize, given the impracticality of reading every article in its entirety.
3. Previews/Roadmaps: For readers who intend to read the full article, abstracts serve as a guide, outlining the content and structure.
4. Index Help: They assist editors and database administrators in organizing journal articles, which in turn facilitates searching and retrieval for prospective readers.

Descriptive vs. Informative Journal Abstracts

Objective Tone: Both types present information neutrally and objectively, without evaluating the original work.
Descriptive Abstracts (Indicative Abstracts):
- Function as an outline of the referenced work.
- Typically include the problem studied and the method used.
- Do not usually include results or conclusions.
- Length: Shorter, often no more than $100-150$ words.
- Example: "In this study, ascending layer chromatography with an isopropanol-based solvent and ninhydrin was used to analyze and identify the presence of unknown amino acids in a mixture." (Describes purpose and method).
Informative Abstracts:
- More comprehensive and fully summarize the original work.
- Expected to be stand-alone.
- Include the problem, method, results, conclusions, and any author recommendations.
- Length: Longer, often $200-300$ words or more.
- Example: "In this experiment, chromatography was used to analyze amino acids in solution. Standards were used to identify unknown amino acids in a mixture. Ascending layer chromatography with an isopropanol-based solvent was used to separate the amino acids, which were then detected with ninhydrin. The unknown mixture analyzed was found to contain aspartate and histidine. It was observed that hydrophobic amino acids were most mobile. This technique was shown to be an effective way of analyzing unknown mixtures of amino acids. A mechanism for ninhydrin binding to amino acids is proposed based on the observations from this experiment." (Includes purpose, method, results, evaluation, and proposed contribution).

Structure of an Informative Abstract

Flexibility: The exact structure can vary based on specific journal publication requirements.
General Guideline (Christine Feak and John Swales): A common structure follows a pattern of questions:
- What is known about the topic?: Establishes context and background.
- What is this study about?: Introduces the study and its purposes.
- How was the study conducted?: Describes the methods used.
- What was discovered?: Presents the results and findings.
- What does this discovery mean?: Discusses and interprets findings, explaining their broader significance or contribution to the field.
Note: Not every abstract will answer all these questions.
Example Application: In the informative abstract example provided, the first two sentences outlined purpose, the third described method, the fourth and fifth presented results, the sixth evaluated results, and the final sentence indicated the study's contribution (a proposed new technique).

Tips and Strategies for Writing Abstracts (Tufts University Academic Resource Center)

Read Examples: Before writing, review several abstracts in your field to observe their structure, included information, and length.
Review Journal Requirements: Always check the specific guidelines of the journal to which you are submitting. For example, IOP Science specifies font (Times, Times Roman, or Times New Roman $10$ pt), indentation ( $25$ mm from left margin), spacing ( $10$ mm after), self-contained content (no references to figures, tables, equations, or bibliography), length ( $<200$ words normally), and single-paragraph format.
Lead with the Main Point: Clearly articulate the core message of your paper or research in a way understandable by an educated non-expert, placing this information first.
Condense and Refine: If your initial summary is lengthy, write several paragraphs and then meticulously cut and condense them into a single, concise paragraph.
Use Keywords: Strategically include keywords relevant to your field of research (e.g., "biochemical engineering") to aid discoverability.
Write Last: Ideally, compose your abstract after completing the full paper to ensure it provides the most accurate and comprehensive overview of the final work.
Extensive Revision: Expect to revise your abstract multiple times, especially when first developing this skill.
Seek Outside Help: If struggling to meet word limits, enlist the help of a friend or writing tutor to identify and remove excess words.

Conclusion: Despite their brevity, abstracts are challenging to write effectively, requiring extreme conciseness and careful information distillation. This skill improves significantly with practice.

The Role of Abstracts and Source Evaluation in Academic Work

Expectation for Juniors: Writing abstracts becomes an expected skill by junior year in college, particularly for contributing to academic databases.
Peer-Reviewed Papers: These are academic works that have been vetted and validated by experts in the field. This review process provides a "believable, secure foundation" for the research, and peer-reviewed articles are stored in premium databases with safeguards against alteration.
- Benefits of Peer Review: Ensures reliability and academic rigor.
- Using Non-Peer-Reviewed Sources: Sometimes necessary for timeliness (e.g., current events reported in newspapers, which have a much faster publication cycle than academic journals).
Database Search Strategy: When searching academic databases, it's highly recommended to start by selecting the "Full text," "Peer reviewed," and "References available" filters.
- "References available" helps generate citations (though often requires correction).
- "Peer reviewed" directly addresses professor requirements.
- "Full text" ensures access to the entire article.
Advanced Search with Custom Range: Useful for historical research, allowing users to specify a date range (e.g., "1965 to 1977" for articles on political violence).
Search Term Precision:
- Too many results (e.g., $8,000,000$ hits) indicate a search term is too broad and needs narrowing.
- Too few results (e.g., $1$ hit) indicate a search term is too precise.
- An ideal range is typically between $20$ and $10,000$ results.
Keywords: Crucial for abstract writing and database searching. Researchers register specific keywords for their work to improve discoverability, and these should be integrated into the abstract (e.g., "maintenance," "policing," "urban public space" for "Broken Windows Theory").

Evaluating Source Reliability

Core Academic Skill: Evaluating the reliability of a source is fundamental to college-level research and is a central focus of courses emphasizing annotated bibliographies.
Annotated Bibliography Components: A brief summary, an evaluation of the source's authenticity/reliability, and a description of its usability.
"Not a Good Source" vs. "Cannot Use It": A source being biased does not automatically mean it cannot be used. The key is to explicate the bias.
- Example: Automaker Website (e.g., Chevy for police cars):
  - Bias: Yes, inherently biased as its goal is to sell cars.
  - Reliability: Provides factual data about the product (e.g., gas mileage, acceleration, power) which, due to government regulations, must be truthful.
  - Limitations: Will not provide unbiased information on aspects like maintenance costs or long-term reliability; for that, one would consult independent sources like Consumer Reports.
  - Conclusion: A biased source can be highly useful for specific, verifiable facts, provided the bias is acknowledged and understood.
Digital Natives' Intuition: Those who grew up with digital technology often possess an advanced, instinctive ability to visually assess a website and determine if it appears trustworthy or "bogus."

Accessing Library Databases (Hilbert College Specifics)

Updated Process: The library database system was overhauled, rendering older instructional materials (like PowerPoint) partially outdated.
Current Steps:
1. Go to the Hilbert College website.
2. Click "About" (counter-intuitively, not "Academics").
3. Scroll down.
4. Click "Visit our library."
5. Scroll down again.
6. Click "Databases."
7. Click the "Featured database" (at which point older instructional materials may become relevant again).

Miscellaneous Notes

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Briefly mentioned in connection with campus safety. Physiological needs (air, water, food, shelter including food security) are foundational, followed by safety needs (personal security, employment resources). The speaker questioned the interpretation of "self-actualization" as "what you most want to be," relating it to personal career choices and happiness over financial gain (e.g., engineering vs. English professor).
Social Security: The speaker used a personal anecdote about paying into Social Security for $52$ years to criticize politicians for potentially breaking promises to generations regarding retirement benefits, advocating for government accountability to citizens.
Broken Windows Theory: Briefly introduced as the idea that a dilapidated environment influences people towards misbehavior, while well-maintained surroundings encourage positive conduct. The theory has evidence supporting it in some, but not all, contexts.
Investigative Interviewing Research: An example abstract was shown describing research that usually focuses on single interviews, overlooking the common practice of multiple interviews, a gap the study aimed to address.