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Chapter: American History Before Columbus

Determining What Came Before

  • As recently as 1987, a widely used U.S. history textbook stated that the Americas were devoid of civilization before European arrival, contrasting civilizations that existed in Europe, Asia, and Africa.
    • The textbook's narrative framed the history of America as the creation of a civilization where none existed.
    • The revised edition in 1995 acknowledged diversity among pre-Columbian civilizations but dedicated only four pages to the topic.
  • Indigenous peoples' histories do not begin with Christopher Columbus's arrival in 1492, but rather with their own origin stories:
    • Iroquois: Ancestors fell from the sky.
    • Pueblo, Navajo, Mandan: Emerged from the earth.
    • New England Algonquian: Transformed from ash trees into people.
    • Kiowa: Entered the world through a hollow log.
    • Archaeological evidence supports migration via the Bering Strait from Siberia.
  • Columbus “discovered” an established world rich in diverse peoples, histories, communities, and cultures.

Precontact Population

  • Previous estimates suggested a Native American population of no more than 1 million in 1492, based on early records after fatal diseases decimated communities.
  • Recent demographic studies have dramatically increased estimates:
    • Populations range from 2 million to 18 million north of Mexico, with some estimates suggesting a total of 43 to 65 million in North and South America combined.
    • This indicates extensive and sophisticated social, political, and economic structures among Native tribes prior to European contact.
    • The stereotype of empty wilderness before colonization is a European fiction; Native populations actively modified landscapes.
  • Evidence suggests that different Native groups altered forests, created grasslands, built towns, and maintained complex social systems.

Creation Stories and Migration Theories

  • Archaeological evidence indicates human presence in North America as far back as 12,000 years, with some claims extending to 40,000 years.
  • Native oral traditions affirm that tribes like the Abenaki, Anishinaabe, and Navajo have always inhabited the land.
  • Various unsubstantiated European theories proposed Native American origins from disparate groups (e.g., lost tribes of Israel, ancient Welsh prince Madoc, voyagers from Polynesia, etc.).
  • The prevailing archeological theory supports migration via the Bering Strait, supported by:
    • Genetic, dental, linguistic evidence linking Native American populations to populations of Asia.
    • The Ice Age (c. 75,000 B.C.-8000 B.C.) lowered sea levels to create a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska.
  • Nomadic hunters traversed this land bridge following game, eventually populating varied climatic regions across the continent.
    • Migration theories are challenged by the possibility of maritime travel; evidence suggests that coastal voyages were plausible.
  • Key archaeological sites demonstrating early habitation include:
    • Folsom, NM: Found worked flint with extinct bison, dating back about 8,000 years.
    • Clovis, NM: Older weapon points known as Clovis points, now dated to approximately 11,500 years ago.
    • Meadowcroft Rock Shelter, PA: Potential occupation as long as 20,000 years ago.
  • The most accepted range of primary human occupation in the Americas is between 12,000 and 14,000 years ago, bolstered by discoveries like the site in southern Chile dated at 12,500 years ago.

Controversy and Diverging Perspectives

  • The discovery of “Kennewick Man” (circa 8,000 years old) near the Columbia River ignited controversy due to its purported racial characteristics resembling Caucasoids.
    • Tribes demanded reburial, while courts ruled for archaeological study access.
  • Scholarly skepticism regarding migration theories is not always politically or racially motivated.
    • Native perspectives sometimes reject the notion of migration via the Bering Strait, asserting longstanding indigenous presence.
    • Voices like Little Turtle and Vine Deloria Jr. argue against the Bering Strait theory, suggesting its political implications reinforce stereotypes.
  • Joseph Marshall III posits that Indigenous narratives often emphasize presence rather than chronicle the when.

Glimpses of Precontact Societies

  • Precontact America was marked by cultural diversity and complexity, involving extensive adaptation and resource management:
    • Constructed irrigation, diversified agriculture, hunting tools, and trade networks.
    • Varied architectural styles based on environmental needs.
    • Pursued trade, diplomacy, conflict, and housed rich cultural traditions.
  • California Coast:
    • Rich marine resource harvesting dating back 10,000 years, supporting large populations of hunter-gatherers.
    • Chumash Indians engaged in diverse subsistence practices and large-scale trade.

Northwest Pacific Coast Societies

  • Northwest Coast:
    • Seagoing peoples harvested ample marine resources and formed large, prosperous, stratified societies.
    • Built architecture suited to environment, creating communal living structures.
    • Major archaeological site: Ozette, preserved by mudslides.
  • Columbia Plateau:
    • Salmon central to culture; fishing stations became social/ceremonial hubs.
    • Rituals dictated the fishing seasons, showcasing deep respect for resources.
    • The Dalles as a major trade location.

Great Basin and Plains Societies

  • Great Basin:
    • Varied environments led to nomadic lifestyles that adapted to resource availability.
    • Seasonal mobility aligned with food resources; trade existed with distant regions.
  • Plains:
    • Paleo-Indians hunted megafauna, developed social organization for communal hunting.
    • Clovis points allowed the hunting of large animals.

The First Farmers and Civilizations

  • Transition to agriculture began around 10,000 years ago, transforming social structures, with corn becoming the main crop by A.D. 1000 in the Eastern Woodlands.
  • Farming led to more sedentary lifestyles and development of complex societies:
    • Mississippian cultures arose along the lower Mississippi, evidencing significant social and political organization, such as Cahokia.
    • Societies engaged in trade across vast networks, exemplified by Cahokia's importation of goods from great distances.

Emerging Tribes and Confederacies

  • In northern regions, Iroquoian-speaking tribes formed councils for governance, forming a Great League of Peace.
  • Native American political structures were disrupted by European contact, but many communities retained aspects of their cultural identity.

Seaborne Strangers

  • European arrival introduced profound change to the Native American world, filled with established complex societies.
  • Prophecies foretelling the arrival of Europeans were prevalent in Native oral traditions, often carrying a foreboding tone about future hardships.
  • The story of Native peoples since European contact has largely been one of adapting, surviving, and rebuilding.