Government and Politics: Elections and Congress

Crash Course Government and Politics: Elections and Congress

Introduction to Elections

  • Importance of Elections: Elections are often regarded as the most crucial aspect of politics in America, with a cultural obsession surrounding them.

    • Early 2015 Context: Media was geared towards the 2016 presidential candidates from both the Democratic and Republican parties.

  • Personal Anecdote: The speaker humorously notes personal and familial campaigning efforts, highlighting the informal nature of political participation.

  • Presidential Elections vs. Congressional Elections: There is a focus on the importance of Congressional elections and their relevance to the public.

Constitutional Basis of Elections

  • Congress as the Most Important Branch: According to the Constitution, Congress is constitutionally the most significant branch due to its supposed responsiveness to the electorate.

  • Frequency of Elections: Members of Congress frequently run for office, theoretically keeping them accountable to their constituents.

  • Constitutional Framework:

    • Article I, Section 2 outlines congressional elections:

    • "The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states."

    • Federal and state election laws govern the scheduling and rules, with states having the power to set up voting protocols, polling places, and voter registration requirements.

Characteristics of Congressional Elections

  • Winning Elections Is Necessary: To serve in Congress, one must win elections.

  • House of Representatives:

    • Elections occur in single-member districts determined by the census every ten years.

    • District numbers fluctuate and play a role in Congressional representation.

  • Senate Elections: Each state's senators are elected state-wide, often referred to as at-large elections, leading to differences in election dynamics between the House and Senate.

Candidate Characteristics and Campaigning

  • Good Candidate Traits: Successful candidates typically:

    • Maintain a clean record free from scandals (not universally applicable).

    • Have the ability to raise significant funds for their campaigns.

  • Fundraising in Political Campaigns:

    • Candidates can self-finance, but most rely on external funding.

    • Expense Trends:

    • In 2012, House winners spent nearly $2,000,000, while Senate winners spent over $10,000,000.

    • Rising costs of running for office lead to an increasing financial burden for candidates.

Incumbent Advantage

  • Incumbency Explained: Current officeholders, or incumbents, have advantages in elections due to:

    • Established work record and legislative accomplishments.

    • Greater ease in fundraising due to existing recognition and relationships.

    • Familiarity with voters (patronage and casework), presenting a clearer record when running for re-election.

  • Statistical Data: Over the past sixty years, approximately 90% of incumbent House members were re-elected, while more than half of senators retained their seats even in the 1980 elections, demonstrating a strong incumbency advantage.

The Electoral Connection

  • David Mayhew's Theory (1974): Congress members' behaviors are primarily motivated by the desire to secure re-election, summarized under the concept of the "electoral connection."

  • Congressional Actions: Congressmen engage in three categories of activities:

    • Advertising: Building personal brands recognizable to voters (e.g., Senator Pothole).

    • Credit Claiming: Merging personal achievements and relationships with constituents to earn favor.

    • Position Taking: Public declarations on issues of interest to constituents, sometimes bypassing legislative action.

Understanding Congressional Workings

  • Congress's Complexity:

    • Both Houses are divided into committees to improve efficiency. House committees total 19, while Senate committees total 16, with members often serving on multiple committees.

  • Types of Committees:

    • Standing Committees: Handle day-to-day legislative business.

    • Select Committees: Investigate specific issues, either temporary or permanent (e.g., Senate Select Committee on Intelligence).

    • Joint Committees: Comprised of members from both houses, usually handling routine matters.

    • Conference Committees: Created to merge differing versions of the same bill from both houses.

Committee Functionality

  • Bill Proposal Process:

    • Any member can propose legislation, which must then move to a committee for processing.

    • Committee chairpersons control the agenda of what issues are voted on and whether the bill moves forward.

    • The concept of gatekeeping authority refers to the control committees have over what proposals advance.

  • Markup Sessions: Committees revise and vote on bills, and failure to gain majority support results in a bill dying in committee.

  • Oversight Power: Committees also monitor the implementation of laws and may hold hearings to assess efficacy.

Historical Context of Congressional Committees

  • Changes Under Newt Gingrich (1994): Major reforms increased the Speaker's power and altered how committee chairs were appointed, moving away from seniority rules and enabling greater influence over legislative processes.

  • Staff Structure: A two-tier system exists:

    • Individual staff assisting members with research, legislation drafting, and constituent management.

    • Centralized staff agencies providing broader assistance, including the Congressional Research Service and the Government Accountability Office.

Caucus System

  • Definition and Purpose: Caucuses are informal groups that facilitate discussion among like-minded members about particular interests. They do not have legislative authority.

  • Caucus Examples: Organizations include the Congressional Black Caucus and the Tea Party Caucus, which strategize and promote shared interests without formal roles in legislation.

Leadership Structure in Congress

  • House Leadership:

    • The Speaker of the House is the majority party's leader, who oversees the House's function.

    • The Majority Leader acts as a bridge among members, while the Minority Leader expresses oppositional views.

  • Senate Leadership:

    • The Majority Leader runs the Senate, with significant control over the legislative agenda and decisions.

    • The President Pro Tempore leads in the absence of the Vice President, a largely ceremonial role.

Influence of Political Parties on Congress

  • Majority Rule: Political parties shape legislative priorities, with the majority party holding substantial sway in committee selection and agenda formation.

  • Campaign Contribution Influence: Leadership's ability to fundraise effectively enhances their influence, as they can direct campaign resources where needed.

  • Party Unity: The cohesiveness of party members influences individual decision-making, with strong party discipline leading to more consistent voting patterns.

Factors Influencing Congressional Decision-Making

  • Constituents: Congress members frequently account for their constituents' opinions, with visibility into votes becoming critical near elections.

  • Interest Groups: Organizations provide critical information for lobbying and legislative drafting, shaping policy indirectly by blocking certain provisions.

  • Political Parties: Strong party leadership can direct voting, although more complex factions may enable representatives more freedom from strict party lines.

Conclusion

  • Understanding Behaviors: Each decision by a congressperson is influenced by a mixture of these factors, alongside their personal experiences and the overarching congressional structure.

  • Future Perspectives: As legislation becomes increasingly complex, the importance of understanding these dynamics only grows to grasp why certain policies advance or regress in Congress.

Summarization from Book Chapters: Elections & Congress — One‑Page Exam Cheat Sheet

1. Introduction to Elections

  • Elections are central to American political culture; huge public and media focus.

  • Presidential races get attention, but Congressional elections matter more for representation and lawmaking.

  • Elections determine who holds power and how responsive Congress is to the public.

2. Constitutional Basis of Elections

  • Congress = “most important branch” in the Constitution because it is closest to the people.

  • Article I, Section 2: House members elected every 2 years by the people.

  • States control election administration: polling places, registration rules, voting procedures.

  • Federal + state laws together shape how elections run.

3. Characteristics of Congressional Elections

House of Representatives

  • Elected in single‑member districts.

  • Districts redrawn every 10 years after the census.

  • District size and shape influence representation.

Senate

  • Senators elected statewide (at‑large).

  • Different campaign dynamics: larger electorate, more expensive races.

4. Candidate Qualities & Campaigning

  • Successful candidates usually:

    • Avoid major scandals

    • Raise large amounts of money

    • Build name recognition

  • Campaign costs keep rising:

    • 2012 averages: ~$2M for House winners, ~$10M+ for Senate winners.

  • Fundraising is essential; most candidates rely on donors, not self‑funding.

5. Incumbent Advantage

  • Incumbents win ~90% of House races; Senate incumbents also win most of the time.

  • Advantages include:

    • Name recognition

    • Fundraising networks

    • Casework + constituent services

    • Established legislative record

  • Voters often choose the familiar option.

6. The Electoral Connection (David Mayhew)

Members of Congress behave strategically to get reelected through three activities:

  • Advertising — building a personal brand (e.g., “Senator Pothole”).

  • Credit Claiming — taking credit for benefits delivered to constituents.

  • Position Taking — public statements on issues important to voters.

7. How Congress Works Internally

Committee System

  • House: 19 committees; Senate: 16 committees.

  • Members serve on multiple committees.

  • Types:

    • Standing — permanent, handle legislation

    • Select — temporary or permanent, investigate issues

    • Joint — both chambers, routine tasks

    • Conference — reconcile House/Senate versions of bills

Committee Powers

  • Gatekeeping — decide which bills move forward.

  • Markup — revise and vote on bills.

  • Oversight — monitor implementation of laws.

1994 Gingrich Reforms

  • Increased Speaker’s power.

  • Reduced seniority’s role in choosing committee chairs.

8. Congressional Staff

  • Personal staff — help members with research, drafting, casework.

  • Central staff agencies — CRS, GAO, etc., provide nonpartisan expertise.

9. Caucuses

  • Informal groups of like‑minded members.

  • Examples: Congressional Black Caucus, Tea Party Caucus.

  • No legislative authority but influence agenda‑setting and coalition‑building.

10. Leadership in Congress

House

  • Speaker of the House — most powerful; controls agenda.

  • Majority Leader — coordinates party strategy.

  • Minority Leader — leads opposition.

Senate

  • Majority Leader — most powerful figure; controls floor schedule.

  • President Pro Tempore — ceremonial; senior member of majority party.

11. What Influences Congressional Decision‑Making

  • Constituents — especially near elections.

  • Interest Groups — provide information, draft language, lobby.

  • Political Parties — influence voting through party unity and leadership pressure.

  • Personal beliefs & experiences also matter.