Exam 2 - General Psychology

Consciousness

• Definition: The state of being aware of internal sensations and external surroundings.

• Variability: Ranges from alertness to sleep or altered states such as hypnosis or drug-induced states.

Attention

• Definition: The process of directing focus toward certain stimuli while ignoring others.

• Importance: Essential for perception and learning.

Circadian Rhythm

• Definition: The body’s internal biological clock that regulates daily cycles of alertness, hormone release, temperature, and sleep.

• Duration: Roughly spans 24 hours.

Homeostasis

• Definition: Mechanism by which the body maintains stable internal conditions, such as temperature, hunger, and sleep balance.

Hypothalamus

• Function: Regulates drives related to hunger, thirst, and sex; controls circadian rhythms via the SCN (Suprachiasmatic nucleus).

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

• Definition: A cluster of neurons located above the optic chiasm.

• Function: Synchronizes the circadian rhythm using light cues.

Pineal Gland

• Function: Small endocrine gland that releases melatonin at night, inducing sleepiness.

Melatonin

• Definition: Hormone that increases in darkness, signaling that it is time to sleep.

• Suppression: Production is suppressed by light.

Challenges to Circadian Rhythms

• Factors that disrupt normal cycles include:

  • Jet Lag: Caused by time zone changes.

  • Shift Work: Overnight work alters natural rhythms.

  • Blindness: Lack of light cues disrupts circadian regulation.

Insomnia

• Definition: Difficulty in falling or staying asleep.

• Causes: Can be attributed to stress, anxiety, or poor sleep habits.

Behavioral Approach to Insomnia

• Strategies:

  • Sleep Hygiene: Maintaining a consistent schedule and avoiding caffeine.

  • Relaxation Training: Techniques to promote relaxation before sleep.

  • Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Psychological approach to change sleep-related thinking and behavior.

Sleep Debt

• Definition: The result of accumulated lost sleep, leading to symptoms such as fatigue and impaired performance.

Sleep Needs by Age

• Infants: 14–17 hours

• Children: 9–12 hours

• Teens: 8–10 hours

• Adults: 7–9 hours

• Older adults: 7–8 hours

Consequences of Sleep Deprivation

• Effects on physical and mental health include:

  • Weakened immune system.

  • Slowed reaction times.

  • Increased risk of accidents.

  • Weight gain and heart diseases.

  • Poor memory.

Meta-Analysis

• Definition: A statistical method that combines multiple studies to reach stronger conclusions about a phenomenon.

Sleep Rebound

• Definition: When deprived of REM or NREM sleep, the body compensates with increased amounts during the next sleep cycle.

Functions of Sleep

• Evolutionary: Protection from predators at night.

• Restorative: Repairs tissues, restores energy, strengthens immune system.

• Cognitive: Consolidates memories and enhances learning.

Sleep Stages & Brain Waves

• Stage 1: Light sleep characterized by a transition from alpha to theta waves; the individual drifts in and out of sleep.

• Stage 2: Presence of theta waves with sleep spindles and K-complexes; less aware of surroundings.

• Stage 3: Deep sleep featuring delta waves; hardest to awaken.

• REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement stage where vivid dreams occur; body is paralyzed while the brain remains active.

Brain Waves While Awake

• Beta Waves: Represent alert and focused states.

• Alpha Waves: Indicate a relaxed but awake state (as seen in meditation).

Parasomnias

• Various Disorders:

  • Sleepwalking (Somnambulism): Occurs in NREM-3, can involve complex behaviors.

  • REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD): Characterized by acting out dreams due to lack of paralysis during REM sleep.

  • Night Terrors: Episodes of intense fear during NREM sleep.

  • Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS): An overwhelming urge to move the legs, leading to sleep disruption.

  • Sleep Apnea:

  • Obstructive: Caused by blocked airways.

  • Central: Occurs when the brain fails to send signals for breathing.

  • CPAP: Continuous Positive Airway Pressure machine used to maintain open airways in apnea patients.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

• Definition: The unexplained death of a sleeping infant, potentially linked to irregularities in breathing.

Narcolepsy

• Definition: A sleep disorder characterized by sudden sleep attacks during the daytime.

• Cataplexy: Sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions.

Dream Theories

• Freud's Theory:

  • Manifest Content: Actual content of the dream.

  • Latent Content: Hidden meanings or desires behind dreams.

• Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from the brain trying to make sense of random neural firing.

• Reflective Theory: Dreams mirror waking life, with emotions and experiences reappearing in dreams.

Lucid Dreams

• Definition: A state where the dreamer is aware they are dreaming and can exert control over the dream.

Substance Use Disorders

• Definition: Excessive drug use that leads to impairment, including physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms.

  • Dependence:

  • Physical: Body adapts to substance; withdrawal symptoms occur if usage stops.

  • Psychological: Cravings that affect emotional wellbeing.

• Tolerance: The necessity of higher amounts of a substance to achieve the same effects over time.

• Withdrawal: A range of physical symptoms (such as shaking, nausea) and psychological effects (like anxiety, irritability) that occur when use ceases.

Drug Categories

• Depressants: Substances like alcohol and barbiturates that slow down the central nervous system.

• Stimulants: Substances like cocaine and methamphetamine that accelerate activity in the central nervous system.

• Opiates: Include heroin and morphine, which provide pain relief and euphoria.

• Hallucinogens: Drugs like LSD and marijuana that alter perception.

Neurotransmitters Involved in Substance Use

• Dopamine: Associated with reward and pleasure pathways in the brain.

• GABA: Functions as an inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neural activity.

• Serotonin: Plays a role in mood regulation.

• Norepinephrine: Related to arousal and alertness.

Hypnosis

• Definition: A trance-like state characterized by focused attention, deep relaxation, and heightened suggestibility.

• Uses: Can be used in managing pain or as part of therapeutic interventions.

Meditation

• Definition: Mindfulness practice aimed at reducing stress and improving attention.

• Effects: Alters brain waves toward alpha and theta states, aiding relaxation.

Learning

• Definition: A relatively permanent change in behavior or understanding resulting from experience or practice.

• Types of Learning:

  • Associative Learning: Forms connections between events, including classical and operant conditioning.

  • Behaviorism: Psychological approach focusing on observable behavior rather than internal thoughts.

Classical Conditioning

• Pavlov's Dogs Experiment: Demonstrated classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus (bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to create a conditioned response (salivation).

• Key Terms:

  • UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Naturally triggers a response (food).

  • UCR (Unconditioned Response): Natural reaction (salivation).

  • CS (Conditioned Stimulus): A previously neutral stimulus that gains ability to elicit response (bell).

  • CR (Conditioned Response): Learned reaction (salivating to bell).

  • Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that initially produces no specific response.

Classical Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition: The process of linking the CS with the UCS.

• Extinction: The diminishing of a CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a delay.

• Stimulus Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.

• Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Definition: A new stimulus can become a CS by being paired with an existing CS.

Watson & Little Albert Experiment

• Overview: Demonstrated conditioning of emotional responses; a baby was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise, showing emotional learning and generalization to other similar stimuli like rabbits.

Operant Conditioning

• Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

• Skinner’s Research: Used the Skinner Box to study reinforcement and punishment;

  • Operant: Any voluntary behavior influenced by consequences.

  • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of behavior occurring again.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a rewarding stimulus.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus.

  • Punishment: Decreases the behavior.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence.

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus.

Shaping in Operant Conditioning

• Definition: Gradually reinforcing closer approximations of the target behavior until the full behavior is learned.

• Common Applications: Utilized frequently in animal training.

Types of Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Biological needs (e.g., food, warmth).

• Secondary Reinforcers: Learned reinforcers (e.g., money, praise, grades).

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous Reinforcement: Every desired behavior is reinforced quickly leading to fast learning but also quick extinction.

• Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Only some responses are reinforced, leading to slower learning but greater resistance to extinction.

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a fixed period (e.g., weekly quiz).

• Variable Interval: Reinforcement after variable time intervals (e.g., checking email unpredictably).

• Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses (e.g., every 5 sales).

• Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling), making it the most resistant to extinction.

Cognitive and Social Learning

• Latent Learning (Tolman): Learning that occurs without reinforcement; only expressed when there is motivation.

• Observational Learning (Bandura): Learning by watching and imitating others.

  • Bobo Doll Study: Children observed and mimicked aggressive adult behaviors.

  • Four Steps in Observational Learning:

  • Attention: Must notice the behavior.

  • Retention: Must remember it.

  • Reproduction: Must be able to reproduce it.

  • Motivation: There must be a reason to imitate.

• Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment: Learning behaviors by observing others being rewarded or punished.

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation: Process by which sensory organs detect stimuli and send signals to the brain.

• Perception: Interpretation of sensory information to form a meaningful understanding of the world.

Thresholds in Sensation

• Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference, JND): The smallest detectable difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected 50% of the time.

• Absolute Threshold: The minimum level of stimulus intensity that can be detected 50% of the time (e.g., seeing a candle flame 30 miles away in complete darkness).

Inattentional Blindness

• Definition: Failure to perceive visible objects when attention is focused elsewhere (e.g., “gorilla video” experiment where viewers missed a gorilla while counting basketball passes).

Light and Vision

• Amplitude: Determines the brightness of light or loudness of sound.

• Wavelength: Determines the color of light or pitch of sound.

• Frequency: The number of waves per second; higher frequency equals higher pitch or blueish color.

Anatomy of the Eye

• Cornea: Transparent covering that begins to focus light.

• Pupil: Adjustable opening that controls the amount of light entering the eye.

• Iris: The colored ring of muscle around the pupil that adjusts its size based on light conditions.

• Lens: Focuses light onto the retina by changing shape (accommodation).

• Retina: Inner layer containing sensory receptors (rods and cones) for vision.

• Fovea: Center of the retina, concentrated with cones for sharp color vision.

• Optic Nerve: Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain's occipital lobe.

• Vitreous Humor: Gel-like substance maintaining the shape of the eye.

• Blind Spot (Optic Disc): Area where the optic nerve exits the eye; lacks sensory receptors.

• Optic Chiasm: The point in the brain where visual information crosses to the opposite hemisphere.

Types of Photoreceptors in Retina

• Rods: Light-sensitive cells for night vision; respond to black and white, lacking color sensitivity.

• Cones: Color-sensitive cells focused mainly in the fovea, responding to red, green, and blue light.

Color Theories

• Trichromatic Theory: Proposal that three cone types (red, green, blue) combine to create all perceivable colors.

• Opponent-Process Theory: Suggests color perception is controlled by opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow, black-white) which explain afterimages and color contrasts.

Depth Perception

• Definition: Ability to perceive 3D space and estimate distances accurately.

• Binocular Cues (utilizing both eyes):

  • Binocular Disparity: Each eye sees a slightly different view, aiding depth perception.

  • Convergence: Eyes angle inwards when viewing close objects.

• Monocular Cues (utilizable by one eye):

  • Linear Perspective: Parallel lines converge visually as they extend into the distance.

  • Relative Size: Smaller objects are perceived as further away.

  • Texture Gradient: Detailed appearances decrease with distance.

  • Interposition: Closer objects block those that are farther away.

  • Shadowing: Provides cues on depth and shape.

Sound and Hearing

• Outer Ear:

  • Pinna: Collects sound waves.

  • Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum): Vibrates and transmits sound.

• Middle Ear:

  • Ossicles: Three small bones (malleus, incus, stapes) amplify sound.

  • Oval Window: Transmits vibrations to the inner ear.

• Inner Ear:

  • Cochlea: Fluid-filled structure converting sound waves into neural signals by means of hair cells.

  • Semicircular Canals: Responsible for balance and motion detection (vestibular sense).

• Hearing Loss:

  • Conductive Hearing Loss: Sound transmission is impeded in the outer or middle ear.

  • Sensorineural Hearing Loss: Damage to the cochlea’s hair cells or auditory nerve, often irreversible.

Taste & Smell (Chemical Senses)

• Gustation: Sense of taste.

• Olfaction: Sense of smell.

• Taste Categories: Include sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (savory).

• Taste Buds: Contain receptor cells that regenerate approximately every 1–2 weeks.

• Olfactory Bulb: Brain structure above the nasal cavity, directly processes smell signals, bypassing the thalamus.

Touch & Body Senses

• Skin Receptors: Detect pressure, stretch, vibration, pain, and temperature.

• Thermoception: Sensing heat and cold.

• Nociception: Detects pain or injury.

• Vestibular Sense: Maintains balance and spatial orientation through inner ear mechanisms.

Gestalt Principles of Perception

• Definition: Our brain naturally organizes sensory information into meaningful wholes.

• Principles Include:

  • Figure-Ground: Distinctions between objects and their background.

  • Proximity: Grouping nearby items together.

  • Similarity: Grouping similar items together.

  • Continuity: Perception of continuous patterns rather than interrupted ones.

  • Closure: Our tendency to fill in gaps to form complete images.

Intelligence

• Definition: The capacity for learning, problem-solving, reasoning, and adapting to new situations including applying knowledge.

Types of Intelligence

• Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge accumulated through experience, education, and culture (e.g., vocabulary, facts); typically increases with age.

• Fluid Intelligence: The capacity to think abstractly and solve novel problems, often peaks in young adulthood and declines in later life.

Theories of Intelligence

• Triarchic Theory (Robert Sternberg): Divides into three types:

  • Analytical Intelligence: Problem-solving and academic skills (often measured by IQ tests).

  • Creative Intelligence: Ability to manage new situations and utilize imagination.

  • Practical Intelligence: Commonly referred to as “street smarts.”

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• Theory: Proposes eight independent intelligences explaining diverse human talents, such as:

  • Linguistic: Language and writing abilities.

  • Logical-Mathematical: Abstract reasoning and logic.

  • Spatial: Visualizing and manipulating spatial relations.

  • Musical: Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, and sound.

  • Bodily-Kinesthetic: Skills in physical coordination.

  • Interpersonal: Insight into others’ feelings and motivations.

  • Intrapersonal: Self-awareness and emotional insight.

  • Naturalistic: Understanding nature and environmental factors.

  • Existential: Some theories add a ninth intelligence describing philosophical and spiritual understanding.

Creativity & Thinking

• Creativity: The ability to generate original and valuable ideas, commonly related to divergent thinking.

• Types of Thinking:

  • Convergent Thinking: Logical reasoning leading to a single correct answer.

  • Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple solutions to a problem, common in brainstorming.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

• Definition: Introduced by Daniel Goleman, encompassing:

  • Recognizing emotions in oneself and others.

  • Effectively managing one's emotions.

  • Self-motivation.

  • Demonstrating empathy.

  • Maintaining smooth relationship dynamics.

• Significance: High EQ correlates with success and well-being, often surpassing the importance of IQ alone.

Measuring Intelligence

• IQ (Intelligence Quotient): Standardized measure comparing an individual’s mental abilities to the population average of 100.

• Score Distribution: Bell-curved distribution with 68% of the population scoring between 85-115 (average range).

  • Below 70 indicates intellectual disability.

  • Above 130 suggests gifted abilities.

• Wechsler Scales:

  • WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) designed for adults.

  • WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) used for kids, assessing both verbal and nonverbal performance.

• Standardization: Uniform testing procedures to ensure reliability and fairness across testing conditions.

Norming

• Definition: Establishing average scores to allow for performance comparisons within a population.

Flynn Effect

• Observation: The trend of rising average IQ scores over time, likely due to improvements in nutrition, education, and technology.

Bell Curve of IQ**

• Normal Distribution: Shows most individuals scoring near the average, with fewer scores seen at the extremes.

Intellectual Disability

• Definition: An IQ score of 70 or below, accompanied by deficits in adaptive behavior (communication, daily living skills, social skills).

• Causes: Can stem from genetic conditions (e.g., Down syndrome), prenatal issues, or environmental factors.