Viruses.

Discussion on vaccines: - Must contain an antigen to elicit an immune response.
Two types of vaccine design discussed: - Traditional vaccine design for SARS-CoV-2 - Novel vaccines designed to prompt cells to produce the antigen themselves.

Description of SARS-CoV-2 particle: - Notable for spikes and an envelope. - Viral genome composed of RNA.
Genome extraction possible: - Use of enzymes for sequencing and analysis. - Ability to isolate the gene for spike protein critical for infection. - Spike protein is important for attachment to host cell receptors.

Discussion of modified viruses: - A virus is altered to be non-pathogenic but carries genetic information for SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. - Discussion of reverse transcriptase for DNA synthesis from RNA.
Identifying the role of specific protein subunits in vaccines and their antigenic properties: - Importance of the antigenic portion in triggering antibody production.

Although viruses are not considered living, they have genetic material that can mutate: - Mutations during replication can lead to genetic variability.

Two mechanisms leading to genetic diversity in viruses: - Antigenic Shift: - Occurs when two viruses infect the same host and can recombine their genetic material, resulting in a hybrid virus with altered spike proteins. - Requires co-infection by multiple viruses. - Antigenic Drift: - Involves point mutations that gradually change the virus characteristics. - Affects efficacy of infection due to changes in spike protein composition.

Discussion on viruses that can cause cancers: - Viral genomes may integrate into the host's DNA, potentially disrupting regulatory genes. - Example of proto-oncogene overexpression due to viral interference: - Viral insertion near proto-oncogenes may lead to faster cell replication.
Consequences of genetic disturbances caused by virus integration into host genomes.

Photosynthesis overview: - Process by which cells capture light energy and convert it into chemical energy. - Light energy leads to the creation of glucose, essential for cellular energy and structure.
Primary producers (plants, algae, certain bacteria) perform photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts: - Contain multiple membranes (inner, outer) similar to mitochondria. - Key internal structures include: - Stroma: Inner fluid of chloroplast. - Thylakoids: Membrane-bound structures within the stroma that contain chlorophyll. - Granum: Stack of thylakoids.
Importance of both chloroplasts and mitochondria in plant cells: - Needed for both photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Introduction to energy types discussed: - Distinction between kinetic energy (movement) and electromagnetic radiation. - Characteristics of electromagnetic radiation differentiated: - Light energy travels as electromagnetic waves and behaves as photons.
Various forms of radiation discussed: - Examples include radio waves, microwaves, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, etc. - Emphasis on how these types of energy differ in their wavelength and energy capacity. - Brief mention of practical applications and risks associated with high-energy radiation (like X-rays).

Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are interconnected: - Glucose produced during photosynthesis can be used as energy during cellular respiration.
Significance of electron sharing in glucose formation as a source of stored energy.
Exploration of glucose structure and its role in energy release during cellular respiration.

Recap of key themes: - Importance of understanding viruses for vaccine development and their mutability. - Fundamental concepts of photosynthesis within plant biology and energy conversion processes.
Upcoming discussions planned with a focus on detailed mechanisms of photosynthesis in subsequent lectures.