AP European History Period 2 Review Assignment

Establishment of Absolute Monarchy: The 17th and 18th centuries marked a significant shift in European governance, with many nations adopting absolute monarchy. This centralization of power was characterized by the monarch's unchecked authority over state matters, reducing the influence of nobility and increasing the state's bureaucratic powers.

France

  • Nobility's social position:

    • Nobles maintained high privileges, enjoying exemptions such as not paying the taille (a property tax) and having the right to trial by peers.

    • The nobility of the robe, a class of magistrates and administrators, entertained the king and often served in governmental roles.

    • The 17th-century reforms allowed the heirs of noble families to inherit titles, thereby extending their influence.

Russia

  • Nobility gained rank through service:

    • Serving the state allowed nobles to earn titles and the right to own serfs, creating a class with significant landholdings and economic power.

    • Under Catherine the Great, the Charter of the Nobility not only formalized noble privileges but also divided Russia into sections ruled by noble-appointed officers, emphasizing local control alongside central authority.

    • The charter granted exemptions from personal taxation and protection from corporal punishment, consolidating noble power.

Prussia

  • Prussian nobility (Junkers):

    • The Junkers were closely monitored by the king and held significant military and land control, reinforcing the central authority.

    • Their strong sense of duty to the military helped Prussia become a formidable force in Europe, leading to a well-disciplined and powerful army.

Louis XIV's Centralization

  • Strengthened French state under Cardinal Richelieu's policies:

    • Centralized monarchy reduced noble governance power by restricting public assembly discussions and enforcing censorship.

    • A network of spies was established to monitor dissent and maintain control over the population.

    • The intendant system empowered civil servants loyal to the king, diminishing the influence of regional nobles and bolstering bureaucratic governance.

    • Louis XIV ruthlessly dismantled the private armies of the nobility, leading to a centralized military effort that improved state control.

    • His military campaigns, especially against the Habsburgs during the Thirty Years' War, showcased this centralized military organization.

    • Mercantilism under Colbert:

    • Created the French East India Company to bolster trade and establish France as an economic powerhouse.

    • Encouraged internal and external tariffs to protect budding industries and improved infrastructure by building roads and canals.

    • Established the French Academy of Sciences to foster innovation and scientific endeavors.

Military Organization

  • Organized military efforts under Louis XIV outlawed private warfare, thereby centralizing military power.

  • Strengthened the navy to protect trade routes, reflecting the importance of maritime commerce.

Edict of Fontainebleau

  • Revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had granted religious freedoms to Huguenots, and enforced Catholicism as the only faith, leading to significant societal and religious upheaval.

Enlightened Absolutism

  • Prussia under Frederick the Great:

    • Implemented bureaucratic efficiencies and reforms that reduced the use of torture (with exceptions for severe crimes).

    • Promoted agricultural productivity through initiatives such as crop rotation and the introduction of new farming techniques.

  • Austria under Joseph II:

    • Abolished serfdom and emphasized religious toleration and public education, forging a more humane and progressive state.

    • Codified laws to respect human rights, attempting to create a more equitable society amid complex multi-ethnic governance.

Poland’s Partition

  • Weak governance structures and inability to consolidate power among competing factions led to three partitions of Poland by Prussia, Russia, and Austria.

  • This pragmatic approach aimed to maintain a balance of power among major European states and facilitated territorial expansion through political maneuvering.

Peter the Great

  • Undertook extensive westernization and modernization efforts in Russia:

    • Travelled to Western Europe for insights into governance and military organization, implementing significant reforms in these sectors.

    • Restructured governance and military hierarchies to align with Western models.

    • Secularized the church and altered societal norms, including enacting dress codes that aligned with Western customs.

Catherine the Great’s Reforms

  • Efforts to codify laws were often limited by resistance from the powerful nobility, who opposed reforms that threatened their status and privileges, leading to a complex balance of power.

Challenges to Absolutism

  • Glorious Revolution (1688):

    • The ascension of William of Orange and Mary, following the ousting of James II amid conflict with Parliament, resulted in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

    • The Bill of Rights was enacted, ensuring legislative supremacy and limiting monarchic powers.

  • Dutch Republic’s Oligarchy:

    • Post-Protestant revolt, it established a complex governance structure linking trade, military, and urban gentry, illustrating alternative political systems beyond traditional monarchy.

  • Prussia’s Rise:

    • Through a combination of military restructuring and diplomatic finesse under Friedrich Wilhelm I and his successors, Prussia emerged as a powerful state in Europe by unifying various territories and enhancing its military capabilities.

Diplomatic Developments Post-1648

  • Peace of Westphalia (1648):

    • Significantly reduced the powers of the Holy Roman Emperor, allowing for independent governance by princes within the empire and ending religious conflicts.

  • War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714):

    • Prevented the unification of the French and Spanish thrones, establishing a balance of power that led to territorial gains for Britain, altering the political landscape of Europe.

  • Seven Years’ War:

    • A global conflict with profound consequences, leading to territorial gains for Britain while presenting substantial challenges for France and prompting shifts in colonial power dynamics.

The French Revolution

  • Long-term Causes:

    • Social inequality among the estates, especially heightened burdens on the Third Estate, underpinned growing discontent.

    • The political incompetence of Louis XVI and previous monarchs led to widespread disillusionment with the monarchy.

  • Short-term Causes:

    • Financial distress from prolonged wars and lavish spending sparked the convening of the Estates-General and the Tennis Court Oath, symbolizing a definitive break from traditional governance.

Radical Phase (Reign of Terror)

  • Led by Robespierre, this period was marked by significant arrests and governmental reforms, establishing revolutionary armies to enforce ideals and combat foreign threats, showcasing the turmoil of revolutionary fervor.

Napoleonic Era

  • Domestic Reforms:

    • The Napoleonic Code promoted legal equality but also curtailed certain rights, particularly those of women, reflecting the tensions between progressive ideals and traditional authority.

    • While perceived as enlightened, policies often reinforced societal norms that limited freedoms for specific groups.

  • Nationalism and Military Campaigns:

    • Napoleonic conquests evoked a sense of nationalism across Europe, spreading revolutionary ideals and igniting fervent nationalistic movements in conquered regions.

The Congress of Vienna

  • Restoration Goals:

    • Aimed to re-establish European order following Napoleon’s fall, focusing on legitimacy, balance of power, and conservative principles to prevent future revolutions.

Conclusion: Social and Economic Changes

  • Agricultural Revolution and Enclosure:

    • Transformational shifts in agricultural practices improved food supply, which in turn spurred population growth and urban migration.

  • Consumer Revolution:

    • Increased spending on emerging comforts reflected societal changes in family structures and values, emphasizing material culture.

  • Public Response Movements:

    • Religious revivals and emotional expressions in the arts illustrated societal shifts toward the Romantic Movement, standing in contrast to the preceding era's strict rationalism.