chapter 19 W.H

$1394–1460$ Life of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal
$1488$ Bartolomeu Dias’s voyage around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean
$1492$ Christopher Columbus’s first voyage to the western hemisphere
$1497–1499$ Vasco da Gama’s first voyage to India
$1519–1522$ Ferdinand Magellan’s circumnavigation of the world
$1565–1575$ Spanish conquest of the Philippines
$1768–1780$ Captain James Cook’s voyages in the Pacific Ocean

Ships strong enough to survive adverse conditions
Rudder at the stern, a Chinese invention
Square sails and triangular lateen sails; ability to tack to advance against the wind
Magnetic compass, a Chinese invention
Astrolabe to determine latitude; later replaced by cross staffs and back staffs

Body of practical knowledge about winds and currents
In the Atlantic and Pacific, trade winds
In the Indian Ocean basin, monsoon winds
Prevailing winds and currents often forced indirect routes
Volta do mar: return through the sea, sailing out into the open ocean to catch favorable winds

Combination of motives: basic resources and lands for cash crops
Desire to establish new trade routes to Asian markets
Desire to expand the influence of Christianity
Portuguese mariners were initially most prominent; began in the thirteenth century, in search of land and resources

Need for maritime trade routes to the markets of Asia
Spices such as pepper and ginger
Collapse of the Mongol empires and spread of bubonic plague made Silk Roads less safe
Europeans sought to bypass Arab mariners who brought Asian goods to Cairo
Direct access to African markets for gold, ivory, and enslaved people

Goal of expanding Christianity drove Europeans into the larger world
Persuasion or violence; in practice motives combined and reinforced each other
Vasco da Gama: Portuguese mariner; first to sail around Africa to India, seeking Christians and spices

After $1415$ , Prince Henry conquered the Moroccan port of Ceuta; sponsored voyages down the west African coast; forts at São Jorge de Mina and other locations
Vasco da Gama: four armed merchant ships from Lisbon to Calicut; lost many crew to scurvy; pepper and cinnamon profits; by the late $16th$ century, English and Dutch mariners followed into the Indian Ocean

Ferdinand Magellan sailed for Spain; sought and found a strait leading to the Pacific in South America
Reached Guam followed by the Philippine Islands; where he was killed in a local political dispute
The survivors sailed home through the Indian Ocean; circumnavigated the globe

It took European explorers almost three centuries to chart the features of the Pacific
The Spanish established a trade route between the Philippines and Mexico
The English, and later the French, sought a northwest passage from Europe to Asia
In the sixteenth century, Sir Francis Drake scouted the west coast of North America as far north as Vancouver Island
By $1800$ , Russian mariners were scouting the Pacific Ocean as far south as the Hawaiian Islands

Led three expeditions in the Pacific
Charted eastern Australia and New Zealand; then New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Hawai\'i
Spent months at a time learning the manners, customs, and languages of Polynesian peoples
Died in a scuffle with the indigenous people of Hawai\'i

Columbian exchange: the global diffusion of plants, food crops, animals, human populations, and disease pathogens that took place after the voyages of Columbus and others
Involved lands with radically different flora, fauna, and diseases; infectious diseases brought devastating losses to indigenous peoples
Smallpox, measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, influenza
Indigenous peoples had no inherited or acquired immunity
Disease epidemics sometimes destroyed entire societies; a major epidemic in the Americas caused large declines in population
Spread of food crops and animals across continents
Population growth: worldwide from about 425 million in 1500 to about 900 million in 1800
Transoceanic migration involved both voluntary and forced movement; enslaved Africans formed the largest demographic group

Voyages of European merchant mariners encouraged a genuinely global trading system: European manufactured goods; silver and agricultural products from the Americas; trade in humans
Manila galleons: sailed between Manila (Philippines) and Acapulco (Mexico) from 1565 to 1815; silver flowed to China
Animal commodities: sable and beaver pelts; hunting affected many species; large numbers of deer, codfish, whales, seals
By the eighteenth century, mass markets emerged for coffee, tea, sugar, and tobacco

Europeans built fortified trading posts in the eastern hemisphere but could not impose rule on large Asian populations and centralized states
Russian explorers established presence in central Asia and Siberia, laying foundations for a Eurasian empire
Commercial and political rivalries led to conflicts

Portuguese mariners built the earliest trading-post empire; by the mid‑sixteenth century, more than fifty trading posts between west Africa and east Asia
Afonso de Albuquerque: seized Hormuz, Goa, and Melaka; Arab, Indian, and Malay merchants remained prominent; Portuguese influence weakened by the late sixteenth century
English and Dutch merchants built trading posts on Asian coasts; English at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta; Dutch at Cape Town, Colombo, and Batavia
They sailed faster, cheaper, and more powerful ships; joint‑stock companies: East India Company (1600) and VOC (1602)

In the western hemisphere, Europeans built territorial empires; in the eastern hemisphere, limited conquests in two island regions: Philippines and Indonesia
Miguel López de Legazpi: commander of Spanish forces in the Philippines in 1565; named the islands after King Philip II
No central government and no organized resistance in the Philippines; Spanish authority extended in the seventeenth century; Manila became a bustling hub; Chinese merchants remained prominent

Architect of Dutch policy in the islands of Indonesia; focused on the spice trade
Founded Batavia on the island of Java in $1619$
By the late seventeenth century, the VOC controlled all the ports of Java as well as most important spice islands; used alliances with local authorities to maintain order; monopoly profits

Russians laid the foundations for a vast land empire; took over several Mongol khanates in central Asia; gained control over the Volga River; later expanded into the Caucasus; Siberia posed formidable challenges

Siberia was home to about twenty-six major ethnic groups; languages and religions varied
When Russians attempted to collect tribute, some groups readily entered into exchange; others resisted
Like other frontiers, epidemics took a toll on indigenous populations; Russian migrants founded towns with Orthodox churches

Dutch expelled Portuguese; by the early 1700s, French and English merchants dominated India tea and cotton
Conflicts spilled over into the Caribbean and the Americas