Study Notes on Early Positivism

Chapter 5: Early Positivism

The Rise of Positivism

  • Context: During the 19th century, scholars shifted towards a scientific view of human behavior.

  • Positivism Definition: The scientific method leading to more positive knowledge.

    • Characterized by determinism: the belief that events have causes that precede them.

Key Concepts in Positivism

Craniometry

  • Core Idea: Skull size correlates with brain size, which in turn indicates intelligence or criminal propensity.

    • Observation:

    • Superior individuals have a larger front portion of the skull.

    • Inferior individuals have a larger back portion of the skull.

Phrenology

  • Core Idea: Bumps on the skull correspond to bumps in the brain, reflecting personality or disposition.

    • Observations: Certain bumps in specific regions indicate personality differences among individuals.

Physiognomy

  • Core Idea: Facial structure reflects developmental processes.

    • The study of the face and body is to indicate developmental problems.

Overall Issues with Early Positivism

  • Aimed to differentiate "superior" and "inferior" races and classes.

  • Flaws in methodology: Skull size and cranial bumps do not accurately correlate with brain structure or functions.

Strengths of Positivism

  • Early scientific approach to the study of crime.

  • Contributed to modern neurological ideas regarding behavior.

Cesare Lombroso: Father of Criminology

  • Key Work: The Criminal Man (1876) - first book dedicated solely to the causes of criminality.

  • Concept of Atavism: Proposed that “born criminals” could be identified through measurable physical features.

Stigmata of Atavism

  • Early Identification: Visible facial features indicating atavism include:

    • Asymmetrical face

    • Monkey-like ears

    • Large lips

    • Twisted nose

    • Long arms

    • Skin wrinkles

    • Extra physiological features: e.g., tattoos and family history of epilepsy.

Types of Criminals According to Lombroso

  • Insane Criminals: Those with some stigmata but not born criminals.

  • Criminaloids: Individuals without physical peculiarities committing crimes due to alterations in the brain.

    • Further categorized into habitual criminals, juridical criminals, and criminals by passion.

  • Born Criminals: Considered beyond rehabilitation; cannot be fixed.

    • Definition of Atavism: Seen as an evolutionary throwback.

Methodology of Lombroso's Conclusions

  • Method involved measuring body dimensions of criminals, including war criminals, and comparing them to Italian soldiers.

  • Flaws in methodology due to environmental differences (e.g., diet, sleep).

  • Main Conclusion: Criminals are evolutionary less advanced than non-criminals, identifiable through body measurements.

  • Methodological issues included poor measurement and extraneous differences like poverty and race.

Influence on Modern Practice

  • Minor physical anomalies correlate with developmental abnormalities.

    • Examples include head circumference, absence of earlobes, and curved fifth fingers.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

  • Alfred Binet: Created IQ to detect educational skills as learned and changeable.

  • H. H. Goddard: Tested at Ellis Island; viewed IQ as innate and unchangeable.

    • Defined degrees of feeble-mindedness: idiot, imbecile, moron.

  • Implications of findings led to the deportation of feeble-minded immigrants and the incarceration and sterilization of citizens.

    • Policy issues arose, especially the moral aspects surrounding sterilization based on family IQ scores, as supported by Supreme Court rulings in Buck v. Bell.

    • Forced sterilization was facilitated by this ruling until the 1970s.

Eugenics

  • Definition: Discriminatory control of the human race.

    • Continued policies supported eugenics into modern IQ testing.

    • Evidence from The Bell Curve (1994): Low IQ individuals are often regarded as destined to fail in life.

    • Statistical findings:

    • IQ is associated with criminal behavior.

    • The verbal to performance IQ ratio is significant (e.g., individuals with low verbal IQ but high performance IQ).

    • High heritability estimate, around 80%, and largely unchanging factors.

Sheldon’s Somatotyping

  • Core Concept: Body type during in utero growth is indicative of personality traits.

    • Three skin layers driving development:

    • Endoderm: Inclined towards laziness.

    • Mesoderm: Linked to aggression.

    • Ectoderm: More introverted tendencies.

  • Issues: Methodological concerns including small sample size, low inter-rater reliability, changes in body type over time, and potential chicken-or-the-egg relationships between type and personality.

Ethical and Policy Implications of Somatotyping

  • Concerns over application leading to sterilization, deportation, and incarceration.

  • Promoted screening for minor physical anomalies (MPAs) and potential IQ screening.

Modern Biosocial Theories

Birth of Biosocial Perspectives

  • Positivist school impact led to biological views on criminology being frowned upon due to ethical concerns.

  • Conclusion: Both biology and environment contribute to criminality.

    • Nature vs. Nurture Debate:

    • Kallikak Family Study: Found high criminality proportional to maternal criminality, facing methodological issues later confirmed by further studies.

    • Twin studies used to assess concordance rates with antisocial behavior variability across monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins.

    • Definitions:

      • MZ twins: Identical genetics (100% genotype).

      • DZ twins: Fraternal genetics (50% genotype).

Adoption Studies

  • Addressed twin studies' issues by examining children adopted and their biological and adoptive parents.

  • Findings support the influence of both biological and environmental factors on criminal behavior.

  • Criticism persist on selective placement issues in these studies.

Twins Reared Apart Studies

  • Most comprehensive studies highlighting the significance of hereditary factors in criminality.

    • Example: The Jim Twins study revealed both biological and environmental influences matter in shaping behavior.

Cytogenic Studies

  • Focus on genetic makeup and differences in chromosomes.

    • Sex Chromosomes:

    • XX and XY, typically men are XY and women XX.

    • Notable Finding: The first mutation linked to criminal behavior was the XYY mutation.

    • Occurrence: 1 in 1000 individuals.

    • Association with higher testosterone levels.

Hormones and Their Role in Behavior

  • Glands and structures influencing hormonal release have significant developmental implications.

  • Critical hormones include:

    • Testosterone

    • Estrogen

    • Cortisol

  • These hormonal factors develop around the fifth week after conception.

The Role of Neurotransmitters

  • Different from hormones; neurotransmitters send electrical signals to create actions.

  • Key neurotransmitters linked to criminality:

    • Dopamine: An excitatory neurotransmitter.

    • Serotonin: Functions both excitatorily and inhibitory.

  • Systematic Approach: No singular gene, hormone, or environmental factor can solely account for all criminal behavior.

Brain Function and Criminality

  • Head Injury and Antisocial Behavior: Increases complexity in behaviors linked to criminality.

    • Frontal Lobe: Responsible for decision-making; damage, particularly to the left side, correlates with increased criminal activities.

    • Temporal Lobe: Includes structures like the amygdala and hippocampus; damage linked to aggression and impulsivity.

The Central Nervous System (CNS)

  • Comprised of the brain and spinal column, controlling voluntary actions.

    • EEG Studies: Linked abnormalities to psychopathy and aggression; dysfunction can lead to criminal behaviors.

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

  • Comprised of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, regulating involuntary actions.

  • Findings indicate low levels of ANS functioning correlate with criminality, especially in psychopathy and callous traits.

    • Connections drawn with white-collar crimes, influential CEO behaviors, and political actions.

Focus on Genotype vs. Phenotype

  • Emphasis on the interplay of biological and environmental factors shaping human development and criminal behavior.

  • Definitions:

    • Heritability: Portion of trait variation due to genetic differences in a population.

    • Genotype: Genetic information inherited.

    • Phenotype: Expression of genes manifesting physical and developmental traits.

Behavioral Genetics Studies

  • Explore how specific phenotypes explain behaviors, incorporating genetic, non-shared environmental, and shared environmental influences.

  • Heritability accounts for approximately 50% of variance in antisocial behavior, primarily examined through twin studies.

Nutrition and Toxins

  • Evidence that diet impacts brain development and hormone release influencing behavior.

  • Toxins, particularly those encountered prenatally or immediately after birth, are linked to increased criminality.

General Policy Implications

  • Few direct policies arise; additional understanding of holistic systems is necessary.

  • Suggested general policy implications:

    • Improve maternal and infant health care during perinatal stages.

    • Enhance early interventions targeting high-risk populations.

    • Educate young and new parents about health.