War and the Development of American Nationalism

NATHANIEL MACON

  • Born December 17, 1757; died June 29, 1837.

  • Republican Congressman from North Carolina (1791-1815).

  • Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives (1801-1807).

EMBARGO ACT OF 1807

  • Passed during Jefferson’s Administration.

  • Prohibited American trade with Great Britain and France (belligerents in Napoleonic Wars).

  • Intended to compel peace negotiations.

  • Caused severe economic downturn in New England; 50,000 American seamen out of work.

  • Failed and was repealed in 1809.

JAMES MADISON

  • Fourth President of the United States (1809–1817).

  • Known as the "Father of the Constitution" and author of the Bill of Rights.

  • Member of the Republican Party; resident of Virginia.

  • Previously Secretary of State under Jefferson.

NON-INTERCOURSE ACT (1809)

  • Replaced the Embargo Act of 1807.

  • Permitted trade with all nations except Great Britain and France.

  • Failed to achieve its objectives.

MACON’S ACT NO. 2

  • American merchants resumed trade with belligerents after Non-Intercourse Act repeal.

  • Led to captured American vessels, confiscated cargoes, and British impressment.

  • British compensated merchants; French re-outfitted American vessels as warships.

MACON’S BILL NO. 2

  • Passed to force Great Britain and France to respect America's neutral trading rights.

  • Stated the U.S. would break diplomatic relations with one belligerent if the other recognized American trade rights within 90 days.

  • Napoleon (France) complied; Great Britain did not respond.

  • The United States severed diplomatic relations with Great Britain.

HENRY CLAY

  • Elected to Congress from Kentucky in 1810.

  • Served as Speaker of the House multiple times (first 1810).

  • Prominent War Hawk and expansionist.

JOHN C. CALHOUN

  • Elected to Congress from South Carolina in 1810.

  • A War Hawk and expansionist.

  • Later a member of the Great Triumvirate.

WAR HAWKS

  • Congressional faction, primarily from new western states (Kentucky and Tennessee).

  • Advocated for expansion, including Canada annexation.

  • Leaders: Henry Clay (Kentucky) and John C. Calhoun (South Carolina).

TECUMSEH’S WAR

  • Precursor to and part of the War of 1812.

  • Tecumseh (Shawnee War Chief) and his brother Tenskwatawa (the Prophet) sought a unified Indian alliance to expel Americans.

  • Battle at Prophetstown (Tippecanoe Creek) on November 7, 1811.

  • American forces led by William Henry Harrison defeated Native Americans.

  • Discovery of British weapons confirmed British aid to Native Americans, increasing calls for war.

WAR OF 1812

  • Great Britain's actions detrimental to US: stopping shipping, confiscating cargo, impressing seamen, military presence in Northwest, support for Native Americans, fishing prohibitions.

  • U.S. declared war in 1812.

  • 1812: American forces invaded Canada, attacked York.

  • Great Britain defeated Napoleon in Europe, shifting focus to America.

  • U.S. constructed a naval fleet on Lake Ontario.

  • Decisive American victory at the Battle of Lake Erie.

  • Harrison defeated British and Tecumseh's forces at the Battle of Thames (October 1813); Tecumseh was killed.

WAR OF 1812: British 1814 Strategy

  • Three prongs: 1. Advance down Lake Champlain/Hudson River (to separate New England). 2. Attack the mid-section via Chesapeake. 3. Assault through New Orleans/Mississippi River.

  • Execution challenging due to prior defeats.

WAR OF 1812: Attack on Chesapeake

  • British navy blockaded Chesapeake.

  • Burning of Washington and attack on Baltimore.

  • Frances Scott Key drafted “Defense of Fort McHenry” (“The Star-Spangled Banner”).

WAR OF 1812: Southern Campaign – Key Battles

  • Battle of Horseshoe Bend (Alabama) against Red Stick Creeks; 3rd Lieutenant Sam Houston wounded.

  • Battle of New Orleans (Louisiana).

  • American Southern Command led by Andrew Jackson.

WAR OF 1812

  • Concluded by the Treaty of Ghent, signed December 13, 1814.

  • Negotiated by American diplomats, including John Quincy Adams.

  • Peace based on Status Quo Ante Bellum, making the Battle of New Orleans (fought Jan 8, 1815) essentially irrelevant to peace terms.

TREATY OF GHENT

  • Terms: Status Quo Ante Bellum (no pre-war changes).

  • Great Britain did not promise to cease impressments but didn't resume them.

  • Permitted American fishing in Grand Banks and use of Canadian beaches.

  • Finalized part of the US-Canada boundary line; joint occupation of Oregon Territory.

HARTFORD CONVENTION

  • Federalist convention in Hartford, Connecticut (December 1814 – January 1815).

  • New England Federalists opposed the War of 1812, threatened secession.

  • Demanded Constitutional amendments: eliminate 3/5 clause, limit presidency to one six-year term.

  • Proposals arrived in D.C. after Treaty of Ghent and Battle of New Orleans (Feb 1815).

  • Proposals were ignored; led to the decline of the Federalist Party.

WAR OF 1812: Battle of New Orleans

  • Last major battle of the war, January 8, 1815.

  • British attacked entrenched American forces.

  • British suffered 1,500 casualties; American casualties limited to 55.

HARTFORD CONVENTION PROPOSALS

  • The proposed amendments arrived in Washington, D.C. in February 1815, after the Battle of New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent.

  • The proposals were largely ignored and had no traction.

  • The convention ultimately led to the decline of the Federalist Party as an effective opposition party in national politics.