Unit Two: General Hermeneutics and the History of Scriptural Technology

Course Progression and Unit Two Overview

• The academic schedule is transitioning from a mix of homework and instruction to a continuous sequence of teaching on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The upcoming Wednesday marks the final homework-focused session.

• Unit One was defined by specialized vocabulary derived from Stein, the study of alternatives to authorial intent (specifically Reader Response and the Semantic Autonomy of the text), the consideration of what individual interpreters bring to the process, and a broad overview of historical approaches to interpretation.

• Unit Two focuses on General Hermeneutics, which entails the study of principles and ideas that remain true across all biblical genres. Key areas of focus for this unit include:

  • Grammar studies.

  • Word studies.

  • Theological studies.

  • Cultural studies.

  • Historical studies.

  • The distinction between universal principles and cultural specifics within the text.

• Unit Three will eventually cover Specific Hermeneutics, analyzing how to read different genres such as prophecy, narrative, psalms, and wisdom literature.

The Bible as a Tool of Study: Origins and Technology

• The Bible is the primary tool for theological study, and understanding its transmission requires looking at the technology, processes, and languages involved in its creation.

• Ancient writing surfaces available during the biblical era include:

  • Stone: Used for the $10$ Commandments on two tablets. While durable, it was not cost-efficient, mobile, or user-friendly for longer texts like the Torah (Genesis to Deuteronomy).

  • Metal: Referenced in Exodus $28$ in relation to the High Priest’s breastplate and garments. Durable but unsuitable for extensive book-writing.

  • Gems: Precious stones like amethyst, emerald, pearl, and ruby were used for inscriptions, such as those on the breastpiece of the High Priest.

  • Wood: Utilized for engravings. Intarsia is a related technique where different woods are arranged to create pictures or designs.

  • Engraved Stone Filled with Lead: A "three-dimensional" technology where stone was hollowed out and lead was poured into the engravings.

  • Brass Tablets: Mentioned in intertestamental literature; suitable for short inscriptions but impractical for books.

  • Wax Tablets: Small pieces of wood coated with a layer of melted wax. These were used similarly to schoolroom slates (as seen in memories of Little House on the Prairie). Users inscribed them with a stylus and could re-melt the wax to erase the content.

    • The fragility of this medium is illustrated by the risk of leaving it in a hot car, similar to a bag of crayons melting into a single glob on a windshield.

    • In the New Testament, Zacharias (the father of John the Baptist) used such a tablet to write "His name is John" when he was unable to speak (Luke $1$).

Advanced Ancient Writing Materials

• Papyrus was essentially the "first paper." It was manufactured by cutting the center strips of reed plants, weaving them together, and pounding them smooth. It was cheap, durable, and easily multiplied. Multiple sheets were often glued together to form scrolls.

• Parchment and Vellum represented a significant advancement in technology. These materials were made from animal skins (leather), making them exceptionally durable. Some existing manuscripts produced with this technology date as far back as $1500\, \text{BC}$. Most of the New Testament was recorded on these surfaces.

Writing Instruments and Ink

• The Stylus: Generally used for writing on wood with wax or on soft clay. It featured a sharp point for inscribing and a rounded end for rubbing out mistakes and smoothing the surface (acting as an eraser) while the material was still soft.

• Reed and Quill Pens: Shared the same basic technology. A reed (stick) or a feather was cut to a jagged edge with a "V" shape to hold ink. This is the foundational technology of the modern fountain pen.

• Ink: Produced by mixing soot (carbon/charcoal) with resin or gum (such as pine tree resin) and melting them together. This ink was remarkably permanent; manuscripts from over $3500$ years ago remain legible today, whereas modern digital prints or drugstore photo prints from only decades ago often fade significantly.

Forms of Ancient Books

• Scrolls: Usually around $35\, \text{feet}$ in length, written in columns $2–3\, \text{inches}$ wide.

  • Because scrolls lacked chapter and verse numbers, finding a passage required unrolling and re-rolling while reading for context.

  • In Luke $4$, Jesus opened the scroll of Isaiah to find the passage in Isaiah $61$ beginning, "The spirit of the Lord is come upon me," before rolling it back up and returning it to the lector.

• The Pentateuch as a Literary Unit: The Torah (the five scrolls of Moses) may be viewed as one continuous literary work rather than five separate books. This continuity is evidenced by overlapping narratives, where the end of one scroll (like Genesis) is repeated or summarized at the start of the next (Exodus).

  • Scholar Sailhamer suggests the Pentateuch is a single unit organized around themes like the "rule of faith."

  • In Genesis $15$, Abraham believes God and it is reckoned as righteousness. Conversely, in the wilderness, Moses strikes the rock instead of speaking to it. The text states Moses was barred from the promised land because he "did not believe," highlighting the theme that one must believe to receive the promise.

• Luke-Acts: Like the Pentateuch, Luke and Acts form one continuous literary unit. Luke begins both volumes by addressing Theophilus. In Luke, he recounts what Jesus began to do; in Acts, he recounts what Jesus continued to do.

  • A significant Pentecostal theological point is that the Holy Spirit's activity—where speaking follows the coming of the Spirit—begins in the birth narratives of Luke $1$ (with Zacharias, Elizabeth, Mary, etc.) and continues into Acts $2$, where the pattern shifts to speaking in new languages.

• Codex: Early book form. Unlike scrolls, which were typically written on only one side, a codex could be written on both sides. This made them cheaper, more portable, and easier to reproduce. Most New Testament manuscripts are codices.

  • Writing on both sides is rare for scrolls; in the Book of Revelation, a scroll written on both sides indicates the "fullness" and certainty of God's judgment.

Ancient Writing Styles

• Majuscule (Uncial): Manuscripts written entirely in capital letters with no spaces or punctuation.

  • Interpreters must use theological and contextual clues to divide words. For example, a string of letters could be read as "GOD IS NOW HERE" or "GOD IS NOWHERE."

• Miniscule: A later style using smaller, cursive-like letters. This allowed for greater speed and efficiency in copying. Approximately $9/10$ of all existing Greek New Testament manuscripts are in the miniscule style.

The Languages of Scripture

• Hebrew: The primary language of the Old Testament. It is a Semitic language that is highly picturesque and built on tri-continental (three-letter) roots.

  • $Af$: Means both "nose" and "anger" (referencing the flaring of nostrils).

  • $Panin$: Means "face" and "presence."

  • $Rahum$: Means "mercy," derived from the word for "womb" (signifying the total nourishment and protection the womb provides).

  • Spatial Orientation: In Hebrew, orientation is toward the East (the sunrise). Therefore, "East" means "in front," "West" means "behind," "South" is the "right hand" ($Ben Yamin$ means "son of the right hand" or "son of the south"), and "North" is the "left hand."

• Aramaic: A sister language to Hebrew used in court conversations. It appears in sections of Ezra, Daniel ($Chapters\, 2–7$), and isolated verses in Genesis and Jeremiah.

• Koine Greek: The "Common" Greek of the New Testament era. This was a simplified form of classical Greek promoted by Alexander the Great's Hellenization efforts.

  • Alexander created a common culture and language to unite his empire spanning from Greece to India.

  • When Rome conquered the Greek Empire, they maintained Koine Greek as the lingua franca because it was already established.

  • Greek is a highly inflected language, meaning word endings (cases) determine a word's function (subject, direct object, etc.), allowing for flexible word order.

  • Greek is extremely precise regarding types of action and time (past, ongoing, etc.), allowing for fine theological distinctions.

Theological Significance of Translation

• Unlike other religions (e.g., Islam, where the Koran is only officially the Koran in Arabic), Christianity holds that God's word is translatable into the vernacular of the people.

• The Septuagint ($LXX$): The Greek translation of the Old Testament. It was the Bible of the early New Testament church. New Testament authors frequently quoted the $LXX$ as the authoritative "Word of God," establishing the principle that a translation can hold the same authority and inspiration as the original manuscripts.

• The Reformation (Wycliffe, Luther, Calvin) was centered on getting the Bible into the common languages (English, German, French) so that people could have direct access to revelation rather than relying solely on Latin.

• Hebrew: The primary language of the Old Testament. It is a Semitic language that is highly picturesque and built on tri-continental (three-letter) roots. - $Aph$: Means both "nose" and "anger" (referencing the flaring of nostrils). - $Panin$: Means "face" and "presence." - $Rahum$: Means "mercy," derived from the word for "womb" (signifying the total nourishment and protection the womb provides). - Spatial Orientation: In Hebrew, orientation is toward the East (the sunrise). Therefore, "East" means "in front," "West" means "behind," "South" is the "right hand" ($Ben Yamin$ means "son of the right hand" or "son of the south"), and "North" is the "left hand."