Chapter 21

Chapter 21 ids: The progressive era

Jim Crow laws: Jim Crow laws were laws that enforced racial segregation in the United States from the late 19th century until the 1960s. The laws were intended to marginalize African Americans. 

-How did they work?

• They mandated segregation in public places like schools, restaurants, and transportation

• They required "Whites Only" and "Colored" signs 

• They limited African Americans' ability to vote through literacy tests and other restrictions

• They restricted real estate through covenants that prevented African Americans from buying homes in certain neighborhoods 

-How were they overturned?

• The Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed the remaining Jim Crow laws

Progressive movement: The Progressive movement was a turn-of-the-century political movement interested in furthering social and political reform, curbing political corruption caused by political machines, and limiting the political influence of large corporations. These big-time businesses and political machines had begun to overtake and corrupt the economy, leading to struggles in America.

White Collar Class: individuals in office-based jobs like clerical, administrative, and managerial roles, typically wearing white dress shirts. This distinguished between the blue-collar workers (people working more hands-on or dirty jobs) and the growing middle class of office workers during the industrial era of the early 1900s.

-Why blue and white?

• Blue-collar workers would typically be seen wearing blue shirts to their jobs in the factories, and white collar workers commonly wore white shirts to their office jobs. 

-What jobs would white-collar workers do?

• Clerks

• Accounting

• Secretaries

• Sales associates

• Low-level managers

-So, White collar workers had a much higher social status than blue-collar workers?

• Compared to blue-collar workers, white collar workers were seen as having higher social status due to the perceived higher level of education and professionalism required. However, blue-collar work requires a lot of mental and physical strength due to the typically unsafe and grueling environment, whereas a white-collar job has more room for leisure. 

Jane Addams: An American social reformer and anti-war advocate, co-winner (with Nicholas Murray Butler) of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1931. She is probably best known as a co-founder of Hull House in Chicago, one of the first social settlements in North America.

John Dewey: An American philosopher and educator who was a cofounder of the philosophical movement known as pragmatism, a pioneer in functional psychology, an innovative theorist of democracy, and a leader of the progressive movement in education in the United States.

Muckrakers: Investigative journalists who wrote about corruption in business and government during the Progressive Era, aiming to bring awareness to social issues and inspire reform.

-Who were prominent muckrakers?

• Upton Sinclair: His book "The Jungle" focused on the unsanitary practices in Chicago's meatpacking plants, leading to public outcry and eventually influencing the passage of food safety legislation

• Ida Tarbell: She investigated the monopolistic practices of Standard Oil, led by John D. Rockefeller, exposing their unethical business tactics

• Lincoln Steffens: Known for exposing political corruption in cities through his series of articles titled "The Shame of the Cities". 

• Ida B. Wells:A prominent African American journalist who wrote extensively about the horrors of lynching in the South.

Robert La Follette: an American leader of the Progressive movement who, as governor of Wisconsin (1901–06) and U.S. senator (1906–25), was noted for his support of reform legislation. He was the unsuccessful presidential candidate of the League for Progressive Political Action (i.e., the Progressive Party) in 1924, winning almost five million votes, about one-sixth of the total votes cast.

Florence Kelley: an American social reformer who contributed to the development of state and federal labour and social welfare legislation in the United States. She was one of many people looking to improve the conditions of factories and other subpar work environments.

Municipal Health Reforms: In the early 1900s, many U.S. cities began implementing municipal health reforms in response to overcrowded urban areas, unsanitary living conditions, and public health concerns. These reforms aimed to improve living conditions, control disease, and promote public health. 

-Some key reforms included:

• Sanitation and Clean Water: Many cities began to build and improve sewage systems and water treatment facilities to prevent waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid fever. Public health departments also promoted the importance of clean drinking water.

• Housing Regulations: The rise of tenement housing in rapidly growing cities led to reforms aimed at improving living conditions. Local governments passed laws regulating building codes, requiring better ventilation, fire safety, and sanitary facilities.

• Public Health Campaigns: Cities launched campaigns to raise awareness about hygiene, vaccination, and disease prevention. Public health officials promoted practices like handwashing and the importance of sanitary waste disposal to reduce the spread of diseases like tuberculosis.

• Health Inspections and Regulations: Municipal health departments began to regulate and inspect food and public places, such as restaurants and markets, to prevent the spread of disease. This led to the establishment of food safety laws and regulations to ensure cleanliness and safe practices.

• Public Health Education: Schools, community centers, and public health agencies launched education programs to teach the public about hygiene, nutrition, and disease prevention.

• Labor Laws and Workplace Safety: Reforms also targeted workplace conditions, intending to reduce workplace injuries and illnesses. Cities began regulating factory conditions, child labor, and ensuring better working conditions in industries like meatpacking and textiles.

Louis Brandeis: a lawyer and associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1916–39) who was the first Jewish member of the high court. He quickly became popular among Americans because of his virtue of his representation of interests that had not commonly enjoyed such formidable advocacy.

Mann Act: passed in June 1910, this act invoked the Commerce Clause to felonize the use of interstate or foreign commerce to transport women for immoral purposes.

-What did it aim to do? 

• It aimed to significantly lessen the number of women being trafficked for things like prostitution. The act was amended a few times to address new issues along the lines of its original purpose, but it was never repealed or faced much criticism. 

Brownsville Incident: racial incident that grew out of tensions between whites in Brownsville, Texas, U.S., and Black infantryman stationed at nearby Fort Brown. About midnight, August 13–14, 1906, rifle shots on a street in Brownsville killed one white man and wounded another. White commanders at Fort Brown believed all the Black soldiers were in their barracks at the time of the shooting; but the city’s mayor and other whites asserted that they had seen Black soldiers on the street firing indiscriminately, and they produced spent shells from army rifles to support their statements. Despite evidence that the shells had been planted as part of a frame-up, investigators accepted the statements of the mayor and the white citizens. 

-What happened as a result? 

• President Theodore Roosevelt ordered the dishonorable discharge of 167 Black soldiers from the 25th Infantry Regiment, without a trial, due to a perceived "conspiracy of silence" after a shooting in Brownsville, Texas, effectively stripping them of their pensions and preventing them from future government service

• Roosevelt's actions were rectified in 1972 with the soldiers receiving posthumous honorable discharges after further investigation proved their innocence.

• After the publication of John D. Weaver's book "The Brownsville Raid" in 1970, a re-investigation led to the soldiers being officially pardoned and their records changed to honorable discharges.

The Birth of a Nation: Based on a novel by a Baptist preacher named Thomas Dixon, the film painted Reconstruction, the period following the Civil War, as a time when vengeful former enslaved people, opportunistic White scalawags, and corrupt Yankee carpetbaggers plundered and oppressed the former Confederacy until respectable White southerners rose up and restored order. The film depicted a vindictive northern congressman, modeled on a Pennsylvania Republican member of Congress, Thaddeus Stevens, and a power-hungry biracial man eager to marry the congressman’s daughter. The film’s hero is an aristocratic Confederate veteran who joins the Ku Klux Klan and at the film’s climax, rescues the woman from armed freedmen.

W.E.B Du Bois: an American sociologist, historian, author, editor, and activist who was the most important Black protest leader in the United States during the first half of the 20th century. He shared in the creation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909 and edited The Crisis, its magazine, from 1910 to 1934. His collection of essays The Souls of Black Folk (1903) is a landmark of African American literature.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP): An interracial American organization created to work for the abolition of segregation and discrimination in housing, education, employment, voting, and transportation; to oppose racism; and to ensure African Americans their constitutional rights. The NAACP was created in 1909 by an interracial group consisting of W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida Bell Wells-Barnett, Mary White Ovington, and others concerned with the challenges facing African Americans.

Carrie Chapman Catt: a leading figure in the women's suffrage movement, known for her instrumental role in securing the passage of the 19th Amendment, granting American women the right to vote. She founded the League of Women Voters in 1920 to support newly enfranchised women and promote civic engagement.She was also an advocate for international peace and women’s rights, co-founding the International Alliance of Women, which focused on advancing gender equality worldwide. She revitalized the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and played a leading role in its successful campaign to win voting rights for women.

-What was the NAWSA?

• Formed in 1890, NAWSA was the result of a merger between two rival factions--the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). These opposing groups were organized in the late 1860s, partly as the result of a disagreement over strategy. NWSA favored women's enfranchisement through a federal constitutional amendment, while AWSA believed success could be more easily achieved through state-by-state campaigns. NAWSA combined both of these techniques, securing the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 through a series of well-orchestrated state campaigns under the dynamic direction of Carrie Chapman Catt. With NAWSA's primary goal of women's enfranchisement now a reality, the organization was transformed into the League of Women Voters.

Alice Paul: Alice Paul was a Quaker suffragist who fought to secure women the right to vote and other feminist causes. The author of the Equal Rights Amendment, written in 1923 but still not ratified, died at the age of 92 in 1977, and remains one of the nation’s most outspoken voices in the battle for equality. In 1912, Paul joined the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), with Paul leading the Washington, DC chapter. NAWSA primarily focused on state-by-state campaigns; Paul preferred to lobby Congress for a constitutional amendment. Such differences led Paul and others to split with NAWSA and form the National Woman's Party.

-What was the National Woman’s party? 

• An American women's political organization formed in 1916 to fight for women's suffrage. The group was passionate about earning the right to vote, and they eventually achieved this with the creation of the 19th amendment to the Constitution, which awarded women the right to vote.

Eugene Debs: a labour organizer and Socialist Party candidate for U.S. president five times between 1900 and 1920. He created the Socialist Party and ran for president multiple times, but was never elected. He also spent some time in prison for having criticized the U.S. government’s prosecution of persons charged with violation of the 1917 Espionage Act.

-What were the views of the socialist party?

• The socialist party advocated decentralized socialism in which co-operatives, trade unions, independent farmers, and local authorities would hold a substantial share of the economic power.

Theodore Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th president of the United States, a writer, conservationist, outdoorsman, and soldier.

-Accomplishments?

•  His many accomplishments included expanding the powers of the presidency and of the federal government in support of the public interest during clashes between big business and labor. 

• He steered the nation toward an active role in world politics, particularly in Europe and Asia. 

• He won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1906 for mediating an end to the Russo-Japanese War

•  He secured the route and began construction of the Panama Canal.

United Mine Workers strike: In 1902, 140,000 coal miners left work in the United Mine Workers strike. Workers were protesting low wages and dangerous working conditions, and were up against wealthy mine owners opposed to change.

-What was the result of the strike?

•  Coal prices rose drastically, many Americans could no longer heat their homes, and President Theodore Roosevelt saw the threat of riots. Roosevelt intervened, nationalized the mining industry, and commissioned armies to staff them. 

• Roosevelt successfully ended the strike, but was criticized for violating his Constitutional authority in doing so. Roosevelt argued that ending the strike was his moral duty and worth the breach of presidential responsibilities.

Northern Securities Company: The Northern Securities Company was a holding company formed in 1901 by railroad tycoon James J. Hill to effectively control the Great Northern and Northern Pacific Railway companies, essentially creating a monopoly over railroad traffic in the Northwest by consolidating ownership of these competing rail lines under one entity, which raised concerns about violating the Sherman Antitrust Act; this led to a landmark Supreme Court case where the company was ultimately dissolved due to its monopolistic practices. 

-Purpose?

• To consolidate control over the Great Northern and Northern Pacific railroads by holding the majority of their stock, allowing for coordinated pricing and operations.

-Key figures?

• James J. Hill (railroad owner)

•  J.P. Morgan (banker) 

-Significance? 

• This case marked a significant early application of antitrust laws against large corporate mergers and demonstrated President Roosevelt's commitment to regulating big business.

Hepburn Act: The Hepburn Act is a 1906 United States federal law that expanded the jurisdiction of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) and gave it the power to set maximum railroad rates. This led to the discontinuation of free passes to loyal shippers.

-In simple terms: 

• The 1906 Hepburn Act granted federal regulators in the ICC the power to legally order railroads to set reasonable rates and empowered President Theodore Roosevelt to monitor railroad pricing

National Reclamation Act: The National Reclamation Act of 1902 established a fund to build irrigation infrastructure in the American West. The act was also known as the Newlands Reclamation Act, named after its chief sponsor, Francis Newlands. 

-How did it work?

• The act created a fund to pay for irrigation projects using money from the sale of public land 

• The act authorized the Secretary of the Interior to designate irrigation sites 

• The act required water users to repay the government's construction costs 

-What did it accomplish?

• The act transformed arid regions into productive farmland 

• The act led to the construction of many public works, including dams like Hoover Dam, Shasta Dam, and Grand Coulee Dam

-Why was it passed?

• The act was a response to the needs of settlers who had moved west and found agriculture challenging due to unpredictable patterns of floods and droughts 

• President Theodore Roosevelt supported the act and believed that reclaiming arid lands would promote the agrarian ideals of Thomas Jefferson

William Taft: the 27th president of the United States (1909–13) and 10th chief justice of the United States (1921–30). As the choice of Pres. Theodore Roosevelt to succeed him and carry on the progressive Republican agenda, Taft as president alienated the progressives—and later Roosevelt—thereby contributing greatly to the split in Republican ranks in 1912, to the formation of the Bull Moose Party (also known as the Progressive Party), and to his humiliating defeat that year in his bid for a second term.

Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy: The Ballinger-Pinchot scandal erupted in 1909 when Collier's magazine accused Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger of using his position to help the Guggenheim mining family gain access to Alaskan coal lands, undermining conservation efforts. Ballinger, appointed by President Taft, clashed with Gifford Pinchot, Roosevelt’s chief forester, who criticized Ballinger's actions. The scandal deepened when Taft fired Pinchot, leading to a split in the Republican Party. Although later proven unjustified, the controversy highlighted tensions between resource exploitation and conservation, a debate that continued through Roosevelt’s challenge to Taft in 1912.

Woodrow Wilson: the 28th president of the United States (1913–21), an American scholar and statesman best remembered for his legislative accomplishments and his high-minded idealism. Wilson led his country into World War I and became the creator and leading advocate of the League of Nations, for which he was awarded the 1919 Nobel Prize for Peace. During his second term, the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, giving women the right to vote, was passed and ratified. He suffered a paralytic stroke while seeking American public support for the Treaty of Versailles (October 1919), and his incapacity, which lasted for the rest of his term of office, caused the worst crisis of presidential disability in American history.

Federal Reserve Act: The Federal Reserve Act, passed in 1913, created the Federal Reserve System, the central banking system of the United States. It aimed to provide a more stable and flexible financial system by regulating the money supply, offering a central bank to manage interest rates, and acting as a lender of last resort to prevent financial panics. The act also aimed to balance the interests of private banks and public oversight, ensuring more control over the economy.

-Why?

• The Federal Reserve Act was created to address the frequent financial panics and instability in the U.S. economy. Prior to its creation, the country experienced periodic bank failures, credit shortages, and economic recessions. There was no central bank to manage the money supply or act as a stabilizing force during crises. 

• The Act aimed to create a central banking system that could regulate the economy, control inflation, provide a safer banking system, and ensure a more stable financial environment for businesses and consumers.

•  It was a response to calls for reform after the Panic of 1907, which revealed the weaknesses in the existing banking structure.

Federal Trade Commission: The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is a U.S. government agency established in 1914 to protect consumers and promote competition. Its main functions include preventing anticompetitive practices (like monopolies and price-fixing), protecting consumers from deceptive advertising, and ensuring fair business practices. The FTC enforces antitrust laws and takes action against unfair or deceptive trade practices, aiming to ensure a healthy marketplace for businesses and consumers.

-Context?

• The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was created in 1914 during a time of rapid industrialization and growing concerns over monopolistic practices and corporate power in the United States. Big businesses, such as Standard Oil and American Tobacco, dominated key industries, often engaging in unfair competition and stifling smaller companies. This led to public outcry over consumer rights and economic fairness.

• The FTC was part of the broader Progressive Era reforms, a movement aimed at curbing the power of large corporations, ensuring fair competition, and protecting consumers from deceptive business practices. The agency was tasked with enforcing antitrust laws like the Clayton Antitrust Act, passed in the same year, to regulate and prevent anti-competitive practices. By establishing the FTC, the government sought to maintain a fairer, more competitive marketplace and protect consumers in an era of economic consolidation and rapid corporate growth. 

Clayton Anti-Trust Act: The Clayton Antitrust Act, passed in 1914, was a U.S. law aimed at strengthening antitrust protections and addressing issues that the earlier Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 couldn't fully cover. The law sought to prevent anti-competitive practices and monopolies by prohibiting specific business practices that could lead to unfair competition, such as price discrimination, exclusive dealing agreements, and corporate mergers that substantially reduced competition. The Clayton Act also empowered the government to prevent mergers and acquisitions that would lead to monopolies or significantly lessen competition in any industry. Additionally, it exempted labor unions from being considered as "monopolies," which protected workers' rights to organize. The act was a key part of the Progressive Era's efforts to regulate big business and promote fair competition.

-Break it down

• Purpose: Strengthened earlier antitrust laws (like the Sherman Antitrust Act) to prevent anti-competitive practices and monopolies.

• Prohibited Practices:Price discrimination: Selling the same product at different prices to different buyers in a way that harms competition.

• Exclusive dealing agreements: Contracts that prevent a buyer from purchasing goods from a competitor.

• Interlocking directorates: When the same individuals serve on the boards of competing companies, reducing competition.

• Mergers and Acquisitions: Allowed the government to block mergers and acquisitions that would significantly reduce competition in the marketplace.

• Exemption for Labor Unions: The Act exempted labor unions from being classified as monopolies, ensuring workers’ rights to organize and engage in collective bargaining.

• Overall Impact: Part of the Progressive Era's reforms to regulate big business and promote fair competition in the U.S. economy.

16th Amendment: Ratified in 1913 and gave Congress the power to levy an income tax. Before this amendment, the federal government relied mainly on tariffs and excise taxes for revenue, but these sources were not always reliable or sufficient. The 16th Amendment allowed the government to collect taxes directly on individual and corporate income, providing a more stable and flexible source of funding for federal programs. This amendment marked a significant shift in U.S. tax policy, laying the foundation for the modern income tax system.

17th Amendment: The 17th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1913, established the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people rather than by state legislatures. Before this amendment, Senators were chosen by state legislatures, which often led to corruption and political maneuvering. The 17th Amendment aimed to make the Senate more responsive to the people and reduce the influence of political machines and special interests. This change was part of the broader Progressive Era reforms, which sought to make the government more democratic and reduce corruption in politics.

18th Amendment: The 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1919, established the prohibition of alcohol in the United States. It made the production, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages illegal. This was the result of a long-running temperance movement that argued that alcohol was harmful to society. The amendment aimed to reduce crime, corruption, and social problems associated with alcohol consumption. However, prohibition led to unintended consequences, including the rise of the illegal alcohol trade (bootlegging) and organized crime. The 18th Amendment was eventually repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933, ending the nationwide prohibition of alcohol.

19th Amendment: The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote. This was a major victory for the women's suffrage movement, which had been advocating for women's voting rights for decades. The amendment prohibited voting discrimination based on sex, ensuring that women had the same voting rights as men. It marked a significant milestone in the fight for gender equality and paved the way for greater participation of women in politics and public life.This achievement not only empowered women but also inspired future generations to continue advocating for equal rights across various domains.