Notes on Memorable Articles, Chinese Culture, and Chan Buddhism
Evolution of Chinese Language and Pinyin
Chinese Characters: A distinction exists between classical and contemporary simplified characters. The simplified character system was introduced in Mainland China starting in .
Goal of Simplification: The primary aim was to popularize general education, as traditional Chinese characters were perceived as too difficult. Efforts also included a "Latin movement" in the to replace Chinese characters with Latin spelling, believing that complex characters hindered educational spread and contributed to a perceived backwardness of Chinese civilization.
Challenges of Romanization: Replacing characters with Romanized spelling is difficult due to the existence of homophones (e.g., "ying" can represent various words with different meanings). Implementing a phonetic system alone fails to capture the semantic richness of characters.
Pinyin System (p-i-n-y-i-n): This spelling system was developed after considerable debate. Out of two main systems considered (Russian and Latin), Latin was ultimately chosen. Examples include "en" for English sounds and the pronunciation of "wang" (where 'a' sounds like 'ah') which often leads to the spelling "wong." The current Pinyin system is widely accepted, especially in new publications.
Library System Inconsistencies: The UW library, for instance, has frequently switched between different Romanization systems over the past two decades, creating confusion for users trying to locate specific words or texts.
Chan Buddhism: Philosophy and Practice
Origins and Distinct Direction: Chan Buddhism, which developed during the Tang dynasty, forged its own unique path, differing significantly from other classical Buddhist schools of the era.
Core Differences from Classical Buddhism:
Non-Ritualistic: Chan Buddhism de-emphasizes strict adherence to ritualistic systems.
Beyond Words: It does not rely solely on spoken or written words for understanding. The focus is on "sudden enlightenment," a direct realization that "goes to your heart."
Koans: Riddles or paradoxes, such as "How can you hear the sound of one hand?", are used to disrupt conventional, linear, logical thinking (). Koans aim to stop the mind's usual "track" and encourage individuals to think differently, opening up other possibilities beyond the obvious.
Chan Painting: This artistic style developed a unique character, which will be further discussed.
Chinese Chan vs. Japanese Zen: They are fundamentally the same. Japanese Zen largely derives from two monks who studied in Zhejiang and Fujian provinces, each bringing back particular Chan schools to Japan.
The Significance of Tea Ceremony and Warrior Culture:
Tea Ceremony: Drinking tea became an integral part of Chan practice. The terminology used in Japanese tea ceremonies often originates from specific southern Chinese dialects.
Zen and the Warrior Class: Zen became particularly associated with the warrior class in Japan. What is now often seen as a middle-class women's practice (afternoon tea, flower arrangement) was originally a profound ritual for warriors to contemplate the meaning of death. In Buddhism, the ultimate questions revolve around life, death, and what lies beyond, not mere social gatherings.
Zen Garden: Briefly mentioned as another significant aspect, though not explored in depth.
Xuanzang and the Journey to the West
The Legend of Monkey King (Sun Wukong): This iconic story is globally popular, featuring in video games (e.g., Black Myth: Wukong, which recently garnered hundreds of millions of viewers/downloads), cartoons, and other media. The visual elements in these modern adaptations often reference real Chinese temples, sculptures, and architecture, making them a journey through art history.
Historical Context of Xuanzang's Pilgrimage:
Origin of the Monkey King Story: While commonly associated with the 16th-century novel Journey to the West, earlier accounts from the 8th century (Tang dynasty) already mention a white horse and a monkey accompanying Xuanzang. Scholars debate whether the monkey character originated from a Hindu deity (like Hanuman) or a real "monkey-faced" local guide Xuanzang encountered.
Depiction of Xuanzang: A mural painting, mainly in ink, shows a monk with a holy aura, surrounded by clouds, riding a white horse. The white horse is often depicted as the son of the East Ocean Dragon King, a transformed prince, symbolizing the extraordinary nature of the journey.
Xuanzang's Actual Journey: His family name was Chen, and he became a monk at the age of . By age or , he had studied all available Buddhist texts in China. Learning about Mahayana Buddhism in India, he resolved to travel there.
Challenges on the Silk Road: The Silk Road was controlled by bandits, and the Tang emperor had forbidden citizens from leaving the dynasty. Xuanzang defied this law and escaped.
Border Crossing: At the border, a Buddhist guard, recognizing Xuanzang, tore up his "wanted" paper and urged him to run.
Desert Ordeal: In the desert, a local guide initially offered help but later tried to kill Xuanzang for a reward. Xuanzang's ceaseless chanting deterred the guide, who then took his water. Vowing not to return East, Xuanzang continued West without water, guided by the skeletons of previous travelers on the desert path, until he reached a green oasis.
Forced Detainment: In some regions, local kings, impressed by his status as a high monk, would detain him for up to two years to teach Buddhism.
Return: After years of study, during which he became India's most learned scholar of Buddhism, Xuanzang decided to return. Unsure of the emperor's reception (as he was a wanted criminal), he sent a letter. Emperor Taizong, who had built the Big Goose Pagoda in Xi'an (still standing today) in anticipation of his return, welcomed him.
Life in White Horse Temple: He was settled in this temple to translate Buddhist sutras. However, due to his immense influence, the emperor essentially put him under house arrest, limiting his freedom to prevent political challenges.
Translation and Transformation of Buddhist Concepts: Translating Buddhist sutras into colloquial Chinese posed challenges. Similar to how "coffee" might be reinterpreted as "bitter brown liquid," nuances were lost or reinterpreted from a Chinese perspective. A notable example is Bodhisattva, initially translated phonetically. Later, it became Guanyin (G-U-A-N-Y-I-N), meaning "to view sound," transforming the male Indian deity into a female Chinese deity, who then gained immense popularity in Korea and Japan and even merged with regional goddesses. This demonstrated how Buddhist imagery and concepts changed to fit local culture.
Iconography of the Pilgrim Monk: A painting in the Tokyo National Museum, once believed to depict Xuanzang, is now understood to be a generic image of a traveling monk. It illustrates elements a traveler of the time would carry: a bamboo backpack (with a foot stand, resembling modern designs), woven hemp shoes, a large beaded necklace (which, like early rings and earrings, were often worn by men in China, influenced by Central Asia), an insect-burning tool for ritual purification, and a hanging ritual ball. The clothing reflects popular fabrics of the era.
Xuanzang's Path and Records: Xuanzang traveled through Afghanistan and Pakistan before reaching India, meticulously recording the cultures, peoples, and products of each region.
Other Notable Travelers: Faxian: Another famous monk, Faxian (F-A-X-I-A-N or F-A-C-H-I-E-N), traveled the Silk Road to India in the 4th century. His return journey by sea led him across the Spice Islands, where he was lost at sea but surprisingly arrived at a large continent, meeting locals in colorful clothing, leading to theories that he reached South America. He eventually navigated back to China, arriving at Quanzhou (Q-U-A-N-Z-H-O-U), formerly known as Citong or Zayton. The material satin derives its name from this port, as local merchants struggled to explain the fabric to Arabic traders.
The Maritime Silk Road from Quanzhou: From Quanzhou, Chinese ships sailed to places like Kerala in India, where goods were transferred to smaller boats for shallower waters, continuing to the Arabic world and as far as East Africa (Somalia). During the Song dynasty, the journey from Quanzhou to Somalia and back could be completed in just months, thanks to advanced knowledge of wind patterns. Song dynasty ships were massive, capable of carrying over passengers and soldiers, making trade highly profitable despite high taxes in India. Archaeological discoveries of shipwrecks, laden with ceramics (Tandan), confirm the scale of this trade.
The Land Silk Road and Buddhism's Spread: The term "Silk Road" was coined by a German scholar in or . Silk, a mysterious and highly valued Chinese product (priced above gold in Rome), became truly known to Europeans through Marco Polo during the Mongol period. Buddhism spread rapidly across Eurasia by the 3rd century through both land (like Xuanzang) and sea routes (Burma, Spice Islands). Regions now predominantly Muslim, such as Iran and Syria, once had large Buddhist populations. However, the Islamic expansion in the 8th century led to the destruction of many Buddhist sites. Places like Dunhuang were preserved mainly because the Muslim armies did not extend that far.
The Enduring Legacy of Monkey King in Popular Culture
Early Animation (1930s Cartoon): The Wan family (three brothers) produced a significant cartoon in 1936, focusing on the Monkey King's early adventures. In this narrative:
Monkey's Origins: He learns special abilities from a Taoist master and then ascends to Heaven.
Western Queen Mother: This character, popular since the 2nd century BC, appears. Her image evolved from a demon-like figure (600 BC) with long claws, large teeth, head decorations, riding a "puer" (white patten animal), and served by three blue birds, to an empress figure by the 1st-2nd century AD, even gaining a husband, the Eastern Aqua.
The Peaches of Immortality: Monkey eats the special peaches from a tree that blossoms once every years and fruits years later, taking years to mature. Eating them grants immortality and eternal youth. Monkey devours all of them and destroys the tree.
Confrontation with the Jade Emperor: Enraged by Monkey's mischief, the Jade Emperor sends armies, but they are defeated.
Jupiter's Intervention: A Taoist "super Taoist," Jupiter (depicted as an old man with white hair and beard), traps Monkey in a stove used to make deity pills (which grant immortality). After being burned for days (a sacred number in both Buddhism and Taoism, being a multiple of ), Monkey emerges with "golden eyes," capable of seeing through all disguises, such as demons posing as beautiful women.
Acquiring a Weapon: Monkey seeks a weapon from the Dragon King of the Ocean. He finds a pillar, which upon shaking, causes the ocean to tremor. The Dragon King identifies it as the "needle that settled the balance of the ocean" (the Ruyi Jingu Bang). Monkey claims it, shrinking it into a stick that he can hide in his ear and enlarge at will.
Buddha's Challenge: Monkey boasts that he can jump miles, thus escaping the Jade Emperor's control. Buddha challenges him to jump out of his hand. Monkey leaps many times, pees at the base of what he perceives as five mountains, believing he is free. However, the mountains shrink, revealing themselves to be Buddha's five fingers. Buddha explains that Monkey never left his hand and, as punishment for his troubles, traps him under a mountain for years. The prophecy states that a monk, historically Xuanzang, will later free him. This part of the story vividly combines legends, mythology, and historical figures.
The Impact of the Cultural Revolution on Children's Literature: The Wan family cartoon, along with children's books, provided a rare "open window" for artists during the communist era ( to ), when most art was restricted to propaganda. For example, an artist who painted Mao's back, intending to convey deep thinking, was jailed as an "anti-revolutionary" because the painting was interpreted as an insult. During this restrictive period, children's books, especially Journey to the West, were one of the few avenues for creative expression. Mao later reinterpreted the Monkey King as a hero fighting against feudal authority, which led to the reprinting of the novel in the early . Great and mediocre artists flocked to this field. Children's books were small, cheap (rented for to cents), contributing significantly to children's education and imagination outside of formal schooling.
The 1986 TV Show: This version of Journey to the West is recommended, featuring multiple actors playing Xuanzang seamlessly. The actor playing Monkey was trained in a traditional opera house. Other key characters include:
Zhu Bajie (Pig): A general from Heaven who, after trying to "use" the cold goddess Chang'e, was exiled by the Jade Emperor and mistakenly born into a pig's belly. He embodies human nature: lazy, gluttonous, and prone to lying to his master.
Sha Wujing (Sand Monk): A Central Asian monk exiled from Heaven for breaking a valuable glass ball (from the West) during a banquet, which made the Jade Emperor lose face. He was sent to a "Floating Sand River" (a real phenomenon where sand flows like water, causing anything that enters to sink). His necklace is made of nine skulls, believed to be the skulls of the Tang monk's nine previous incarnations, who had attempted the journey but were eaten by the river demon. Their skulls never sank, symbolizing the monk's repeated failures and the ultimate success of Xuanzang.
Each character in the TV show is symbolic, representing particular human and spiritual traits.
Buddhism in China: Sects and Artistic Expression
Buddhism Sects After Xuanzang's Return: Many new Buddhist sects were established in China, all part of Mahayana Buddhism.
Mahayana vs. Hinayana (Theravada/South School):
Mahayana (Greater Vehicle): Believe enlightenment can be achieved by preaching Buddha or by simply dropping evil thoughts. This path is considered easier for salvation, contributing to its widespread appeal as a world religion.
Hinayana (Small Vehicle): Now often referred to as Theravada or "South School" Buddhism (to avoid the pejorative term "small"). It believes enlightenment requires continuous good deeds over many reincarnations, making it a more difficult path.
Major Mahayana Sects in China and Tibet: In China, sects like Pure Land (associated with the lotus), Tiantai, Huayan (developed in the century), and Chan emerged. In Tibet, Buddhism (often referred to as Lamaism) developed from the – centuries (early development/decline) and saw a "new wave" in the – centuries, forming its modern shape. Early versions are also practiced in Southeast Asian countries like Burma and Thailand.
Key Chan Sects: Chinese Chan Buddhism also developed numerous schools, including Yang, Linji, Caodong, and Yunmen. Linji and Caodong are the two major Chan sects practiced in Japan today, each with distinct vocabulary.
Spread of Chan: Chan was introduced to South Korea (then Silla) in the century and later to Japan, with Japanese monks bringing back Chan paintings in the century.
Liang Kai (L-I-A-N-G K-A-I): A Master of Chan Painting:
As a monk himself, Liang Kai primarily depicted Buddhist subject matter.
"Li Bai" Painting Interpretation: This famous painting depicts Li Bai (also Li Bao), a celebrated Tang dynasty poet, not a Chan patriarch. This choice highlights the deep connection between Chan Buddhism and the literati (scholar-officials/intellectual class) of China.
Composition: The painting features a large empty space, light ink depicting Li Bai's white robe, and strategically placed dark ink for his eyes, hair, and shoes. The dark ink on the shoes is crucial for balance, preventing the upper part from appearing too heavy and the lower part too light.
Technique: Liang Kai's work defies conventional technical displays. It shows exquisite skill in ink application, often employing darker ink over lighter, still-wet ink, or a very old brush. The technique aims to communicate spiritual depth rather than just a silhouette.
Spiritual Depiction: The painting seeks to convey the "emptiness of Zen" through simplicity, stripping away unnecessary details like complex patterns on clothes. The focus is on the spiritual or intellectual state. Li Bai's eyes, specifically, are painted to look into the distance, suggesting he is contemplating poetry or perceiving something beyond the ordinary scale of life.
Spontaneity and Rule-Breaking in Art: Liang Kai's brushstrokes often exhibit a sense of spontaneity, breaking traditional artistic rules. Unlike professional artists who might prioritize demonstrating technique, Liang Kai's concern was to touch the spirit. He was originally a highly trained artist capable of realistic painting but deliberately abandoned such naturalistic styles in his pursuit of enlightenment, much like how master artists like Picasso or Paul Klee adopted seemingly childlike styles after extensive training. This reflects a profound understanding of art beyond mere technical skill.
"Immortal" Painting Interpretation: This work by Liang Kai depicts a deity or immortal, a Taoist (not Buddhist) concept. The figure is portrayed as eccentric: out of shape, with an open shirt revealing a big belly, a large forehead, and squeezed facial features. This non-handsome depiction symbolizes a being beyond worldly rules.
Artistic Style: In contrast to the perceived control in "Li Bai," the "Immortal" painting's ink work, often termed "splash ink," appears more spontaneous and rule-breaking. Artists of this tradition would use unconventional tools, such as watermelon skin, fingernails, or wet paper, to achieve unique effects, further emphasizing their disregard for traditional methods.
Eccentric Tradition: This artistic and behavioral eccentricity has roots in the 4th-6th century Chinese intellectual tradition, where elite figures engaged in bizarre behaviors to signify their detachment from societal norms, embodying the idea that "rules are not for us." This approach is deeply connected to Taoist philosophy.
Upcoming Assignments
"What is Taoism" Videos: Students are assigned to watch three short videos on Taoism (available in the module).
Notes and Discussion: Take notes on the Taoism videos and prepare for a discussion in the next session to further understand Chan Buddhism.
Submission Deadline: Discussion notes should be submitted by Friday around noon.