Chapter 8 Language in Contact: Multilingual Societies & Multilingual Discourse

Key topics

• Multilingualism is the new black

• ethnolinguistic vitality

• language domains

• Multilingual discourse shapes interactions, relationships, and social identities

Multilingualism as a Societal Phenomenon

• Multilingualism is common in societies worldwide, despite many monolinguals' perception that speaking only one language is the norm.

• In many cases, groups of people who speak different languages live near each other, sometimes there are political boundaries that divide them, they identify as being part of the same nation or state, but in all such cases, they have contact and must communicate.

• An example of the former situation is the neighboring nations of France and Germany; of the latter, the German and French-speaking regions of Switzerland.

• Coulmas (2018) cites the estimate that roughly half of the world’s population speaks at least two languages in their daily lives. These various languages are often acquired through simple exposure to the language, although one or more in a person’s repertoire may be learned through schooling or in an instructional setting.

Language competencies in multilingual societies

• Most people who are multilingual do not necessarily have the same abilities in all the languages ( or varieties) they speak; in fact, that kind of parity may be exceptional.

  • As Sridhar (1996, 50) says, Multilingualism involving balanced, native-like command of all the languages in the repertoire is rather uncommon. Typically, multilinguals have varying degrees of command of the different types of repertoires. The differences in competence in the various languages might range from command of a few lexical items, formulaic expressions such as greetings, and rudimentary conversational skills to excellent command of the grammar and vocabulary, and specialized registers and styles.

• This term is used to denote those who do not learn a language through intergenerational transmission but rather acquire it in other contexts, often resulting in diverse language skills that reflect their unique social and educational backgrounds ( O’Rourke et. al. 2015). Jaffe (2015) notes that for Corsican, this includes heritage speakers who have a personal connection to the language through family and culture, yet may not use it actively or fluently in daily life.

Language ideologies surrounding multilingualism

• Many language ideologies are monoglossic, meaning that they take monolingualism as a norm and value it above multilingualism.

• For example, there is a ‘one-nation-one language’ ideology that supports monolingual language policies and practices within a political region. Part of this normative monolingualism is also the stigmatization of multilingual discourse.

• This stigma can result in negative attitudes towards speakers of multiple languages, often leading to marginalization or exclusion from societal participation. These ideologies can hinder the recognition of multilingualism as a valuable asset, contributing to the rich linguistic and cultural diversity found within societies.

• Furthermore, these ideologies often ignore the practical realities of communication in increasingly globalized communities, where multilingual interactions are common and essential for fostering understanding and collaboration among diverse populations.

• In contrast, embracing multilingualism can enhance social cohesion, promote intercultural exchange, and empower individuals to navigate various social contexts more effectively.

Diglossia

•  It is a term used to describe a situation in which there are two distinct codes with clear functional separation.

• These codes are typically categorized as high (H) and low (L), where the high variety is used in formal settings such as education, literature, and government, while the low variety is utilized in informal, everyday conversations.

• Ferguson (1959, 336) has defined diglossia as follows is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language ( which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified ( often gramticaaly more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but it is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation.

metaphorical and situational codeswitching

• Situational codeswitching occurs when the languages used change according to the situation: one language is used in one situation and another in a different one.

  • In contrast, metaphorical codeswitching happens when speakers alternate languages within the same conversation, often to convey specific meanings or emphasize a particular context.

  • This kind of codeswitching differs from diglossia. In diglossic communities, the situation also dictates the choice of variety, but the choice is much more rigidly defined by the particular activity and by the relationship between the participants. Diglossia reinforces differences, whereas codeswitching tends to reduce them.

• Metaphorical codeswitching, on the other hand, involves switching languages within a single conversation to convey different meanings or express cultural nuances, often reflecting the speaker's identity or emotional state.

  • this is illustrated in a quote attributed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, which indicates attitudes about certain languages being holy, the language of love or male solidarity, or crude or bestial: “ I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse." This quote highlights how language choice can be tied to social hierarchies and cultural perceptions, illustrating the complex interplay between language, identity, and power dynamics in multilingual settings.

Language maintenance and shift

• Language maintenance refers to efforts by linguistic communities to preserve their language despite external pressures, such as globalization or socio-political influences favoring dominant languages.

  • This can involve educational initiatives, community programs, and family practices that encourage the use of the heritage language across generations.

• Language shift, conversely, involves a transition from a community's native language to a more dominant language, often due to socio-economic factors, migration, or policy changes.

  • This shift can lead to decreased fluency and eventual language loss, especially among younger generations who may prioritize the dominant language for social or economic advancement.

• The tension between language maintenance and shift highlights the importance of supporting multilingualism as a means to enhance cultural identity and community cohesion, countering trends that lead to language endangerment and loss.