CH 4Colonial Society (The American Yawp)

I. Introduction

• eighteenth-century American culture moved in competing directions: growing ties with Great Britain in commerce, military, and culture, while a distinctly American culture began forming across the colonies.
• Diverse population: European immigrants, Native Americans, and enslaved Africans created a plural society where all groups led distinct lives and forged new social patterns.
• Life in the thirteen colonies was shaped in part by English practices and Atlantic World connections, but emerging patterns transformed North America into something uniquely American.
• Emphasis on both continuity with Britain and the rise of a separate colonial identity tied to expanding Atlantic connections, trade, and local political culture.

II. Consumption and Trade in the British Atlantic

• Transatlantic trade enriched Britain and raised living standards for many North American colonists, reinforcing a sense of commonality with British culture.
• The 17th–18th centuries saw advances in manufacturing, transportation, and credit that increased access to consumer goods; as incomes rose and prices fell, luxuries became common goods. This shift is called the “consumer revolution.”
• Britain depended on the colonies for raw materials (e.g., lumber, tobacco) and colonists engaged with new trade forms and financing to buy British goods.
• Early currency in the Americas: settlers arrived with little hard currency; reliance on barter and nontraditional exchanges (e.g., nails, wampum).
• Commodity money developed regionally; Virginia standardized tobacco as money.
• Massachusetts (1690) issued the first paper bills used as money (bills of credit) for finite periods and varying denominations.
• Problems with paper money: depreciation, counterfeiting, and cross-colony value differences; Britain restricted paper money uses via Currency Acts of
  $1751$ and $1763$.
• Coinage remained important; barter and extended credit (bills of exchange) persisted across colonies, enabling credit-based consumer purchases.
• The ability to borrow and credit underpinned a rise in middle-class consumption; urban prosperity allowed middle-class Americans to emulate elite fashions and furnishings.
• Colonial elites in major ports and inland towns demonstrated wealth through British-style goods; John Adams described the Boston home of a successful businessman with items valued at “a thousand Pounds sterling” including Turkey carpets and damask.
• Despite consumer growth, rising debt and dependence on lenders (local shopkeepers or London merchants) caused unease about credit and consumption.
• Caribbean link: sugar colonies (Jamaica, Barbados, Leeward Islands, Grenada, St. Vincent, Dominica) were economically crucial, importing New England lumber, cattle, and horses, while sugar dominated Atlantic commerce.
• Sugarcane agriculture transformed the Atlantic economy; by the 1640s sugar was widespread in the Caribbean, and by 1680 Barbadian sugar exports surpassed the total exports of all continental colonies combined; Jamaica became a leading sugar producer by the late 17th century.
• New England and the Caribbean: mahogany and other fashionable goods traveled from the Caribbean to the colonies, often via Britain.
• The Navigation Acts and other trade laws tied consumption to politics: Parliament taxed trade to enrich Britain, but enforcement before 1763 was difficult and costly.
• Smuggling and evasion were widespread; British officials estimated roughly £$7 imes 10^{5}$ of illicit goods entered the colonies annually, aided by pirates who served as a buffer between merchants and foreign ships.
• The Sugar Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), and Townshend Acts (late 1760s) imposed taxes on sugar, paper, lead, glass, and tea, fueling colonial resistance.
• In response to taxes, patriots organized nonimportation agreements and promoted domestic production; the Essex Gazette (1769) condemned excessive credit and consumption as a societal risk.
• Urbanization: cities became crucial nodes for Atlantic commerce; by 1775, about 1 in 20 colonists lived in cities (roughly 5%).
• The five largest cities in British North America by 1775 were:
  • Philadelphia: $40{,}000$
  • New York: $25{,}000$
  • Boston: $16{,}000$
  • Charleston: $12{,}000$
• Urban society was highly stratified: laboring classes (enslaved and free) at the bottom, middling sorts (shopkeepers, artisans, skilled mariners) above them, and merchant elites at the top.
• Enslaved presence in cities was significant: in port cities, enslaved people worked as domestic servants and in skilled trades; enslaved laborers were a visible part of urban economies.
• Enslavement in the mid-Atlantic and north: slave labor on farms and in urban maritime trades; in New York, enslaved people comprised a large portion of the population (e.g., over 40% in NYC by 1700); in Pennsylvania, enslaved people accounted for 15–20% of the population by 1750.
• New York and Philadelphia had substantial enslaved populations, with notable slave revolts and anti-slavery sentiment growing in the mid- to late 18th century (e.g., Quakers in Pennsylvania moving toward anti-slavery stands by mid-18th century).
• In New England, slavery never took hold in the same way due to the lack of cash crops; however, the slave trade remained economically important to the region, with major ports like Newport active in the trade (e.g., >$150$ ships by $1740$).
• Massachusetts had a relatively small enslaved population (about 2 ext{%} by the 1760s) and a sizable free Black community in cities like Boston, where a portion of the population was Black.

III. Slavery, Anti-Slavery and Atlantic Exchange

• Slavery was a transatlantic institution with distinct colonial variants in British North America; by $1750$, slavery was legal in every colony, but local conditions shaped its form.
• Virginia: first enslaved Africans arrived in $1619$; large estates persisted due to primogeniture and entail, keeping wealth and land consolidated among great planters and supporting a tobacco-dominated economy; by $1750$, ~$100{,}000$ enslaved Africans lived in Virginia (at least 40 ext{%} of the colony’s population).
• Labor on large estates often used the gang system, with overseers and enslaved drivers enforcing labor from dawn to dusk.
• Virginia law protected enslavers’ interests: the 1705 slave code protected property interests, allowed enslaved people’ s children to be enslaved, denied freedom for enslaved people unless exported, and permitted harsher penalties for enslaved people who struck whites.
• In the South (South Carolina and Georgia): slavery was central; by $1750$, South Carolina had a majority enslaved population on the mainland; Georgia began with a ban on slavery but by $1750$ slavery was legal there as well.
• The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (1669), coauthored by John Locke, legalized slavery from the outset; early settlers carried brutal Caribbean slave codes to Carolina.
• Repression and control included extreme measures: enslaved people could be beaten, branded, mutilated, or even castrated; in 1740, killing a rebellious enslaved person was not a crime; enslaved people’ s freedom was restricted, with freed individuals often required to leave the colony.
• Rice cultivation in the Lowcountry shaped slavery in SC: enslaved people from Senegambia were highly valued for rice expertise; the harsh swamp environment led to disease; planters lived away from fields to escape malaria; enslaved Africans retained strong cultural autonomy, including languages (Gullah, Geechee) and crafts (basket weaving).
• Stono Rebellion (September 1739): about eighty enslaved people rallied under a banner reading “Liberty!” and marched toward Fort Mose in Spanish Florida; they burned plantations and killed at least twenty white settlers; the rebellion was eventually crushed, and many rebels were executed or sold to the West Indies; the event demonstrated enslaved people’ s willingness to fight for freedom.
• In the mid-Atlantic (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania): slavery persisted in agriculture and urban settings; New York City’s population had a significant enslaved component; slavery shaped economic and political life, including planned revolts and anti-slavery sentiment among certain groups.
• Quaker anti-slavery movement: by $1758$, Quakers in Pennsylvania began disowning members who engaged in the slave trade; by $1772$, some slave-owning Quakers faced expulsion; these debates echoed throughout the English-speaking world and influenced abolitionist currents.
• New England: slavery never took hold as a plantation economy, though slave trade remained integral to the regional economy; major ports played a role in transatlantic trade; enslaved people were present in major ports and used in maritime and urban labor.

IV. Pursuing Political, Religious and Individual Freedom

• Political culture: colonial democracy was more expansive than European oligarchies; in Europe, voting was limited, whereas in the colonies white male suffrage was broader, and colonial assemblies held significant power over taxes, budgets, education, and infrastructure.
• Colonial governance fell into three main categories:
  • Provincial colonies: Crown-appointed governors with limited local autonomy (New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia).
  • Proprietary colonies: governors appointed by a lord proprietor; often more liberties than provincial colonies (e.g., Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland).
  • Charter colonies: elected their own governors from among property-owning men; complex powers defined by charters (Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut).
• After the governor, two main divisions existed: the council (the governor’s cabinet, often including militia leader and attorney general) and the assembly (elected, property-owning men; could check the governor; responsible for taxes and budgets).
• The assemblies reflected a civic culture tied to the social contract, popular sovereignty, and political accountability; many colonists believed in equality before the law, though practice varied by race, gender, and class.
• Women and family life:
  • Marriage increasingly tied to affectionate, companionate ideals influenced by sentimentalism and the idea of republican citizenship; the idea of marriage as emotionally fulfilling emerged after long-standing economic arrangements.
  • Coverture: white women often lost political and economic rights upon marriage.
  • Divorce rates rose in the 1790s; elopement notices in newspapers reveal social tensions, with reports of violence and spousal misconduct.
• Print culture and censorship:
  • Print culture integrated with political life; censorship persisted under imperial supervision; printing began in different colonies at different times; Virginia was slow to print, with early attempts discouraged by the colonial government.
  • Bacon’s Rebellion and the role of tract circulation helped spur printing; Annapolis and the Chesapeake gained a stable local press (William Parks in Annapolis, 1726).
  • New England valued print culture; early printing in Massachusetts included the Bay Psalm Book (1640) and the Eliot Bible (1660) in Natick; Philadelphia’s printing scene grew with Benjamin Franklin (arrived 1723) and later German-language presses (Christopher Sauer and family).
  • Franklin helped create a public learning culture (Library Company, Academy of Philadelphia) and promoted a vibrant print economy; Common Sense by Thomas Paine (1776) accelerated revolutionary discourse.
• Religion and revivals:
  • The Great Awakening (1730s–1750s) sought to reinvigorate faith; Jonathan Edwards’ Northampton revival featured predestination and intense spiritual awakening; his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” became famous.
  • itinerant preachers like George Whitefield emphasized heartfelt faith and challenged established churches; crowds sometimes numbered in the thousands, with reports of transformative experiences.
  • The movement split into New Lights and Old Lights; some fringe groups (e.g., James Davenport, 1742) argued for extreme practices and caused controversy; by the 1760s, revivalism waned but left a language of individualism that fed later republican ideals.
  • The revival reinforced print culture and provided a vocabulary for questioning established authority, contributing to a broader language of independence.
• The Great Awakening helped lay groundwork for a more republican society by encouraging personal agency and challenging established religious and political hierarchies.

V. Seven Years’ War

• Global conflict lasting approximately 87 years between the Glorious Revolution (1688) and the American Revolution (1775); the war in North America involved American militiamen fighting with British forces against French and allied Native Americans.
• Frontier warfare: border clashes between New England and French-allied tribes; raids harmed towns, crops, and families; some captives were taken to French Canada or returned via ransom; some converts or captives remained in Catholic territories.
• European theater: 1756–1763 saw broader coalitions and shifting battles; France, Austria, Russia, and Sweden joined against Prussia and Britain’s German allies; Frederick II (Prussia) faced multiple offensives.
• Key battles and turning points:
  • 1757: Battle of Hastenbeck (Prussia and allies defeated); Battle of Kolín (Austrians defeated Prussians); Montcalm and British victories in North America began shifting in Britain’s favor later that year; Leuthen (173) helped secure Prussia’s position in Silesia.
  • 1757–1759: British re-entry into North American and European theaters; James Wolfe defeated Montcalm at the Plains of Abraham (Quebec) in 1759; Louisbourg fell in 1758; Minden (Europe) and the broader naval fights contributed to a British advantage.
  • 1759: The year of miracles (annus mirabilis) as Britain won major battles in Europe and North America; 1759 saw major allied victories that set the stage for the fall of French Canada.
  • 1760: Montreal fell; Britain’s empire expanded; Spain joined later (1762) but could not prevent colonial gains in the Americas.
• Global naval and colonial outcomes:
  • By the 1763 Treaty of Paris and Hubertusburg, Britain gained Canada and much of North America; Prussia retained Silesia; British empire expanded, creating logistical and governance challenges that would influence colonial attitudes.
• Aftermath and implications for colonists:
  • The expanded empire exposed divisions within the British Atlantic world (language, nationality, religious views) and contributed to colonial tensions leading to revolution.
  • The Albany Congress (1754) proposed a union for defense, suggesting early plans for imperial cooperation; Join or Die became a symbol of intercolonial unity.
  • In celebration of British victory, anti-Catholic sentiment intensified; Catholics in Quebec were seen as a potential threat, while Protestant identity became a rallying point across the Atlantic.
• Costs and imperial reform:
  • The war was expensive (Britain spent over $140{,}000{,}000$ in today’s terms; the transcript states “over £140 million”) and led to imperial reforms in taxation, commerce, and governance that affected the colonies.
  • Parliament began legis lating more directly over colonial affairs, fostering a sense of collective colonial identity and grievances against imperial interference.
• The war’s legacy included a strengthened sense of shared colonial destiny and a growing rejection of some British imperial policies, which would contribute to a broader sense of American political identity.

VI. Pontiac’s War

• Complex colonial-Native American relationships after the Seven Years’ War; Pontiac (Ottawa leader) and Neolin (a religious prophet) urged unity and resistance to European encroachment.
• Neolin’s message urged Indigenous communities to abandon European ways, adopt traditional rituals, and reject the “corrupting” influence of Europeans, including alcohol.
• Pontiac mobilized Native groups across the region between the Great Lakes, the Appalachians, and the Mississippi River; in May 1763, he and ~300 warriors attempted to take Fort Detroit but were repulsed, leading to a broader series of attacks.
• Forts attacked and falls:
  • Fort Sandusky, Fort St. Joseph, and Fort Miami captured in a wave of attacks; June 1763 saw the capture of Fort Michilimackinac by Ottawas and Ojibwes in a dramatic uprising, aided by arms smuggled in by Native women.
• Practical and strategic factors:
  • After the war, British efforts to reform Indian policy included regulating trade and prohibiting certain arms deals, a shift from French diplomatic gifts to more coercive control; Amherst discouraged gift-giving to Native groups.
  • Pontiac’s War lasted until 1766; it ended with negotiations and a peace agreement mediated by William Johnson at Fort Ontario.
• British policy consequences:
  • The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established the proclamation line along the Appalachians, restricting colonial settlement west of that boundary to regulate relations with Native peoples; this policy indicated a shift toward protecting Native lands but also limited colonial expansion and intensified discontent among settlers.
• The crisis and its interpretation:
  • Crèvecoeur’s 1782 Letters from an American Farmer used the conflict to frame a new American identity—“What then is the American, this new man?”—emphasizing self-reliant landholders, independence, and a departure from European social hierarchies. However, Crèvecoeur’s narrative framed America as white, male, and Protestant, reflecting contemporary exclusions.
• Overall impact:
  • Pontiac’s War demonstrated that coercive imperial control was insufficient; it pushed Britain to rethink strategies for handling Native lands and Anglo-American settlement, while contributing to a broader sense of American identity and the desire for expanded westward opportunities.

VII. Conclusion

• By 1763, Americans felt more united than ever through shared victories and common challenges, yet they did not feel fully treated as British subjects.
• Imperial reforms (taxes, trade restrictions, and governance changes) were perceived as threats to “the liberties” Americans believed were their birthright.
• The Stamp Act Congress of 1765 and widespread boycotts fostered a narrative of sacrifice, resistance, and a developing political identity that transcended regional differences.
• This growing sense of shared political identity laid groundwork for eventual rebellion against imperial authority.

VIII. Primary Sources

• 1) Boston trader Sarah Knight on travels in Connecticut (1704): Knight’s diary reveals life during the consumer revolution and exposes prejudices and inequalities in eighteenth-century New England.
• 2) Eliza Lucas letters (1740–1741): Two letters from a financially skilled South Carolinian provide insight into the commercial revolution and social world of early eighteenth-century frontier society.
• 3) Jonathan Edwards revives in Enfield, CT (1741): Edwards’ revival and the famous sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.” This excerpt is from the sermon’s later application.
• 4) Samson Occom’s conversion and ministry (1768): Mohegan convert who became a minister and teacher but faced unequal support compared to white missionaries.
• 5) Gibson Clough’s war journal, 1759:Militia diary revealing battlefield experiences and the discipline of the British Army.
• 6) Pontiac calls for war (1763): Pontiac, drawing on Neolin’s teachings, calls for resistance and unity among Indigenous peoples.
• 7) Alibamo Mingo (1765): Choctaw leader expresses concerns about the postwar political landscape after the Seven Years’ War.
• 8) Blueprint and photograph of Christ Church (Virginia): Anglican church as a seat of political, economic, and social elite power; pews and galleries reflected social status; the church faced critique from the Great Awakening.
• 9) Royall family portrait (1741): Portrait of Isaac Royall Jr. and family; visual display of gentility, wealth (including enslaved labor), and elite status.

IX. Reference Material

• Chapter edited by Nora Slonimsky, with contributions from Emily Arendt et al. (The American Yawp, Colonial Society).
• Recommended readings include works on consumer politics, colonial politics, religion, trade, slavery, and Atlantic world connections (e.g., The Marketplace of Revolution; Sugar and Slavery; Refnement of America; New York Burning; The Divided Ground; The Age of Homespun).
• Notes and citations accompany the chapter, including items about slavery, printing, and urban life across the Atlantic world.