Revolutionary changes

Overview of Major Changes in the 17th and 18th Centuries
The Enlightenment

  • Focus on the Enlightenment and its consequences, especially the French Revolution.

  • Definition: The Enlightenment, referred to as the Age of Reason, was a significant cultural movement characterized by changes in thinking, rooted in the Scientific Revolution.

  • Influence: The Enlightenment has profoundly influenced modern life and institutions, including governments, education, and rights.

  • Key Implications:

    • The United States system of government stems from Enlightenment ideas.

    • Concepts of individual rights and natural rights emerged, affecting notions of human rights.

    • The overarching idea that various domains (politics, economics, natural sciences) are governed by natural laws emerged during this period.

Characteristics of Enlightenment Thought

  • Natural Laws: Enlightenment thinkers believed everything is governed by natural laws, extending this beyond science to governance, economics, and human interactions.

  • Gift of Reason: Enlightenment thinkers asserted that humanity was endowed by God with the gift of reason, allowing humans to understand and improve all aspects of life, including governance and economics.

  • Optimism of Improvement: The movement was underscored by a belief in the potential for perfection in governments and societies through reason.

Major Enlightenment Thinkers

  • John Locke (1692):

    • Two Treatises of Government: Argued against divine right and for the consent of the governed, defining the basis for legitimate government.

    • Proposed that humanity originally lived in a "state of nature" with inherent natural rights: life, liberty, and property.

    • Suggested governments were created to protect these rights.

    • Advocated for the overthrow of governments that fail to protect these rights.

    • Essay Concerning Human Understanding:

    • Argued that the mind at birth is a "tabula rasa" (blank slate), filled with knowledge through sensory experience.

    • This notion influenced ideas about education and the role of environment in shaping character.

  • Implications of Locke's Ideas:

    • Rejected the notion of innate ideas, which challenged the Christian doctrine of inherent sinfulness.

    • Emphasized education's role in forming character; believed that nine out of ten men are influenced by their education.

  • Sensibility:

    • Emerging idea that individuals, shaped by experience, must control their overwhelming emotions for societal stability.

    • Sensibility mirrored ideas of politeness, with a focus on internal emotional regulation compared to external behavioral regulation.

  • Voltaire:

    • Opposed injustice and inequality, advocating for the dignity of all humans.

    • Emphasized the importance of scientific understanding as a means to improve society.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau:

    • Introduced the concept of the "general will," suggesting that collective reasoning leads to consensus on social issues.

    • His ideas contribute to democratic and collectivist principles but can also justify the exclusion of dissenting opinions.

  • Baron de Montesquieu:

    • Advocated for the separation of powers in government, leading to the establishment of legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

    • His ideas significantly influenced the structure of modern democracies, including the U.S. Constitution.

  • Mary Wollstonecraft:

    • Wrote the "Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792), asserting that women should have equal rights to education and political participation, based on their capacity for reason.

  • Adam Smith:

    • Economic thinker who viewed economies as governed by natural laws, particularly supply and demand.

    • Argued for laissez-faire economics, promoting minimal government intervention in market forces.

The French Revolution

  • Pre-Revolutionary France Structure:

    • Society divided into three estates: clergy (First Estate), nobility (Second Estate), and everyone else (Third Estate), which bore the majority of tax burdens.

  • Financial Crisis:

    • By the late 1780s, France faced a financial crisis exacerbated by an inequitable tax structure, debt from supporting the American Revolution, and failed harvests leading to rising food prices.

    • King Louis XVI convenes the Estates-General in 1789 to address the crisis, which hadn't met since 1614.

  • Formation of the National Assembly:

    • Frustration from the Third Estate over voting procedures leads to their declaration as the National Assembly on June 17, 1789, signaling a push for reform.

    • Adoption of the Tennis Court Oath, promising to write a new constitution for France.

  • Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789):

    • Symbolizing rebellion, Parisians attack the prison as a sign of revolt against the monarchy and old regime.

  • Great Fear:

    • Rural insurrections against nobility, leading to widespread violence and the destruction of properties.

  • Early Actions of the National Assembly:

    • The August Decrees abolished feudal privileges and established legal equality.

    • The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen established individual rights and liberties based on Enlightenment ideals.

    • Subordination of the church to the state and the sale of church lands marked a significant shift in power.

  • Constitution of 1791:

    • Established a constitutional monarchy with limited powers for the king, maintaining property qualifications for voting, indicating a bourgeois Revolution.

  • Decline of Monarchy:

    • King Louis XVI's failed escape attempt in 1791 and foreign threats lead to growing tensions and radicalization, resulting in the Jacobin takeover.

  • Radical Phase and the Reign of Terror:

    • Led by the Jacobins, particularly Maximilien Robespierre, the government suppressed opposition and implemented radical reforms, including a new, more radical constitution and economic stabilization measures.

    • The Reign of Terror (1793-1794) saw mass arrests and executions, with over 500,000 imprisoned and 20,000 killed by guillotine.

  • Fall of Robespierre (July 1794):

    • Internal dissent leads to Robespierre's arrest and execution, marking the end of the radical phase and the rise of the Thermidorian Reaction, which moderates many of the changes made during the radical phase.

  • Formation of the Directory (1795):

    • A new government structure reestablishing property qualifications and creating a directory of five men to govern amidst ongoing strife.

Napoleon's Rise and Fall

  • Establishment of Order:

    • Napoleon rose to power amidst chaos, stabilizing France and reinstating Catholicism while incorporating Enlightenment ideals into the Napoleonic Code.

    • Implemented reforms in law, economy, education, and national pride through military victories.

  • Decline:

    • Failed to successfully invade Britain and faced disastrous campaigns in Russia, leading to diminishing forces and his eventual abdication in 1814.

    • Reestablished briefly but suffered final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, leading to his exile to St. Helena.

Influence of Enlightenment Ideas

  • Legacies:

    • The Enlightenment inspired revolutions across the Americas, influencing movements for independene in Haiti, Mexico, and many South American nations, which sought to implement similar Enlightenment principles in their societies.