Exam Study Notes

Muscular

  • Epimysium: Connective tissue layer surrounding an entire muscle.
  • Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Structure within a cell that stores and releases calcium.
  • Muscle Contraction Impairment:
    • If sarcoplasmic reticulum cannot release calcium, muscle contraction is impossible.
    • This is because troponin cannot move tropomyosin without calcium.
  • Types of Muscle Contraction:
    • Isometric: Muscle generates force without changing length.
    • Concentric: Muscle shortens while generating force.
    • Eccentric: Muscle lengthens while generating force.
  • Neuromuscular Junction:
    • Location where a motor neuron meets a muscle fiber.
    • Releases acetylcholine.
  • Muscle Contraction Mechanism:
    • Actin binds to ATP.
    • Myosin is pulled toward the center of the sarcomere during contraction.

Nervous System

  • Somatic Nervous System: Responsible for voluntary movements (e.g., bicep contraction).
  • Central Nervous System: Includes the spinal cord.
  • Autonomic Nervous System Divisions:
    • Sympathetic: Fight or flight response.
    • Parasympathetic: Rest and digest.
  • Myelin:
    • Primary function: Helps transmit electrical impulses faster to the axon terminal.
  • Neurotransmitters: Transmit signals to neurons.
  • Glial Cells:
    • Oligodendrocyte: Produces myelin in the central nervous system.
    • Astrocyte: Connects neurons to capillaries.
    • Microglial Cell: Removes debris and pathogens.
    • Schwann Cell: Produces myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
    • Ependymal Cells: Filters blood to create cerebrospinal fluid.
  • Corpus Callosum: Brain structure allowing communication between the left and right hemispheres.
    • Sequence of Dopamine Neurotransmission:
      1. Signal travels from dendrites to the neuron's cell body.
      2. Electrical impulse moves along the axon.
      3. Vesicles transport dopamine to the axon terminal.
  • Brain Lobes and Functions:
    • Parietal lobe: Responsible for thinking.
    • Occipital lobe: Responsible for vision/visual processing.
    • Temporal lobe: Responsible for auditory processing.
    • Frontal lobe: Responsible for thinking, planning, decision-making, emotions, and movement.

Cardiovascular System

  • Capillaries: Facilitate the exchange of gases and nutrients.
  • Veins: Carry blood back to the heart.
  • Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart under high pressure.
  • Atria: Receive blood returning to the heart.
  • Heart Valves: Prevent backflow of blood.
  • White Blood Cells: Fight off infection.
  • Thrombocytes: Blood component responsible for clotting.
  • Bradycardia: Slow heartbeat.
  • Hemoglobin: Protein inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen for transport.
  • Blood Oxygenation:
    • Blood going through the bicuspid valve is oxygenated.
    • Right side of the heart contains deoxygenated blood; left side contains oxygenated blood.
  • Vessel Characteristics:
    • Veins: Thin walls, carry blood back to the heart.
    • Arteries: Thick muscular walls, carry blood away from the heart.

Pulmonary System

  • Pulmonary Artery (Right & Left)
  • Pulmonary Veins (Right & Left)
  • Pulmonary Valve
  • Right Atrium
  • Tricuspid Valve
  • SVC (Superior Vena Cava)
  • Aorta
  • IVC (Inferior Vena Cava)
  • Right Ventricle
  • Left Atrium
  • Mitral Valve
  • Aortic Valve
  • Left Ventricle

Lymphatic System

  • Immunity Types:
    • Innate: First line of defense, short memory.
    • Acquired: Adaptable, remembers and adapts, labels pathogen for attack.
  • Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph and house immune cells.
  • Lymphatic System Function: Helps the body absorb digested fats.
  • Antibody Action:
    • Attach to antigens.
    • Mark them for destruction.

Respiratory System

  • Nasal Conchae: Help warm, moisten, and filter air entering the respiratory system.
  • Mucus Membranes in Nasal Cavity: Trap particles and moisten air.
  • Newborn's First Breath: Difficult due to lack of surfactant in the lungs.
  • Diaphragm Movement:
    • Contracts: Inhaling.
    • Relaxes: Exhaling.
    • Rib movement helps regulate pressure.
  • Respiratory System Gas Regulation: Regulates the levels of gases in the blood.
  • Alveoli: Delicate structures resembling a bunch of grapes for gas exchange.

Digestive System

  • Function: Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, removes waste.
  • Major Organs & Functions:
    • Mouth: Mechanical (chewing) + chemical (saliva/enzymes) digestion starts here.
    • Esophagus: Moves food to stomach via peristalsis.
    • Stomach: Churns food, uses acid + enzymes (pepsin) to break down proteins.
    • Small Intestine: Absorbs nutrients; uses enzymes from pancreas + bile from liver.
    • Large Intestine: Absorbs water, forms poop.
    • Rectum/Anus: Exit.
  • Digestive Process Stages:
    • Mouth (bolus) → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach (chyme) → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Rectum → Anus (feces)
  • Definitions:
    • Bolus = chewed, swallowed food
    • Chyme = stomach acid soup of digested food
    • Feces = waste ready to exit
  • Accessory Organs:
    • Liver: Makes bile (breaks down fats).
    • Gallbladder: Stores bile.
    • Pancreas: Makes enzymes + insulin.

Urinary System

  • Kidney: Removes waste from blood and initiates urine production.
  • Ureter: Transports urine from kidney to bladder.
  • Bladder: Stores urine until voluntary release.
  • Urethra: Expels urine from the body.
  • Urinary System Function: Regulates blood pressure and pH.
  • Nephron Function (False Statement): The nephron stores urine until it is ready to be excreted from the body. (FALSE)
  • Urinalysis: Can screen for diseases, detect infections, diagnose medical conditions.
  • Renal Arteries: Attached to aorta.
  • Renal Veins: Attach inferior vena cava.

Reproductive System

  • Male System:
    • Testes: Make sperm + testosterone.
    • Epididymis: Sperm matures here.
    • Vas deferens: Sperm highway.
    • Seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral gland: Add fluids = semen.
    • Urethra: Semen exits the body.
    • Penis: Delivery system.
  • Fertilization: sperm + egg = zygote
  • Ovulation: egg released from ovary
  • Female System:
    • Ovaries: Release eggs + estrogen/progesterone.
    • Fallopian tubes: Egg meets sperm here (fertilization).
    • Uterus: Fertilized egg implants & grows (pregnancy).
    • Cervix: Lower uterus, opens during childbirth.
    • Vagina: Birth canal + sperm entry.
  • Menstruation: Uterus sheds lining if no fertilization.
  • Developmental Stages: Zygote → embryo → fetus

Endocrine System

  • Hormones & Functions:
    • Prolactin: Promotes milk production.
    • Antidiuretic: Regulates urine formation (reducing urination).
    • Luteinizing hormone: Triggers testosterone production.
    • Growth hormone: Influences height, helps build bones, and muscle.
    • Oxytocin: Stimulates uterus contractions in childbirth.
  • Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands:
    • Endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream.
    • Exocrine glands release hormones into ducts.
  • Pancreas vs. Pituitary Gland Damage: Pancreas damage is more harmful because pituitary gland is the master of all glands.
  • Diabetes Types:
    • Type II Diabetes: Insulin resistant.
    • Type I Diabetes: Insulin dependent.
  • Hormone Production Locations:
    • Cortisol: Adrenal
    • Prolactin: Pituitary
    • Melatonin: Pineal
    • Testosterone: Testes
    • Calcitonin: Thyroid
  • Endocrine Glands:
    • Pineal gland
    • Hypothalamus
    • Pituitary gland
    • Thymus
    • Thyroid and parathyroid glands
    • Pancreas
    • Ovary (in female)
    • Adrenal glands
    • Testicle (in male)
    • Placenta (during pregnancy)