Methods of Philosophizing & Logical Fallacies – Quick Review

Methods of Philosophizing

• Dialectic Method
– Origin: Socrates; refined by Hegel.
– Process: disciplined Q&A to expose ignorance ➔ refine definition (Socrates).
– Hegelian triad: thesis → antithesis → synthesis; explains historical/cultural change.

• Pragmatic Method
– Key figures: Charles S. Peirce, William James, John Dewey.
– Core test: an idea is true if acting on it solves problems / “works” in practice.

• Phenomenological Method
– Founder: Edmund Husserl.
– Focus: describe “immediate experience” (pure subjectivity) without presuppositions.
– Tool: phenomenological epoche (bracketing) – set aside biases to see phenomena as they appear.

• Primary & Secondary Reflection
– Proponent: Gabriel Marcel (existentialism).
– Primary: analyzes experience by breaking it into parts (object-focused).
– Secondary: thinks about the very process of reflection, reunites self with world (subject-inclusive).

• Analytic Method
– Leaders: G. E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein.
– Goal: logical/linguistic clarification, not new metaphysical systems.
– Later Wittgenstein: meaning = use within “language games”; examine everyday usage to dissolve confusion.

Common Logical Fallacies (False/Faulty Reasoning)

• Ad Hominem – attack the person, not the issue.
• Ad Baculum – appeal to force/threat.
• Ad Misericordiam – appeal to pity.
• Ad Populum (Bandwagon) – “everyone does/believes it.”
• Appeal to Tradition – right because long-standing.
• Ad Ignorantiam – true because not yet disproved.
• Petitio Principii (Begging the Question) – circular argument; conclusion assumed in premise.
• Hasty Generalization – conclusion from insufficient cases.
• False Cause / Post Hoc – link events merely by sequence.
• Composition – attributes of parts ➔ whole.
• Division – attributes of whole ➔ parts.
• Equivocation – shifts meaning of a key term mid-argument.

Truth, Facts & Opinions

• Truth: statement corresponds with reality; verified by sound method (reason, evidence, experience).
• Fact: objective, provable.
• Opinion: subjective belief; may use facts but not verifiable in itself.

Evaluating Online Information (Information Literacy)

• MSU Criteria (T. Link): Authority, Verifiability, Timeliness, Relevance, Bias, Orderliness, Clarity, Validity.
• CARS Checklist (R. Harris):
– Credibility – qualifications & source transparency.
– Accuracy – detailed, current, exact data.
– Reasonableness – fair, balanced, logical.
– Support – listed sources; corroboration.

• Additional quick checks:
– URL type (.gov, .edu, .org, .com, personal ~).
– Publisher/Author background & possible agenda.
– Clear structure, neutral language, minimal errors.
– Dates of publication/updates.
– Graphics & links used for information, not distraction.

Essential Competencies to Master

• Distinguish fact/truth from mere opinion.
• Apply philosophic methods to reason toward wisdom.
• Detect and avoid fallacies in everyday arguments.
• Critically assess information sources for credibility and bias.