Comprehensive Study Guide on World Religions, Islamic Civilizations, and Contemporary Religious Issues

Theoretical Foundations of Religious Studies and Comparative Mythology

The field of Comparative Mythology was significantly advanced by the scholar Max Müller, who is recognized as a primary author in this discipline. Other notable figures in the study of religion and its sociological or psychological impacts include E. Taylor, P. Sidorov, and U. Gibson. Within the study of religion (Dinshunoslik), several key functions are identified that explain religion's role in human life and society. The compensatory function is described as providing a "filling" or "comforting" role for individuals. The communicative function ensures the unity of believers by facilitating communication and connection. The regulative function is responsible for organizing and controlling the lives of the faithful, derived from the Latin roots meaning "to bring under a certain order, to regulate, or to establish." The integrative function serves to unite people based on shared religious beliefs. Finally, the legitimizing function (Legitimlovchilik) involves the creation of a system of laws and ethical norms that are elevated to the status of legal standards, as no social system can exist without certain restrictions and codified moral rules.

Evolutionary and Early Forms of Religion

The earliest forms of religious belief emerged between $100,000$ and $40,000$ years ago. These primitive beliefs include several distinct concepts. Animism is the belief that a person's soul continues to live as an invisible spirit after death. Fetishism involves the concept of divine power residing within material objects or things. Totemism is the belief in a kinship relationship between humans and specific animals or plants; for ancient Turkic peoples, the wolf (B’ori) served as a central totem. Magic (Magiya) refers to the use of supernatural rituals to influence the world. E. Taylor is specifically credited with introducing the term Animism into scientific discourse.

General Religious Terminology and Concepts

Religious structures and beliefs are categorized by their view of the divine. Monotheism (Yakkaxudolik) refers to the belief in a single God, a category that includes religions like Judaism. Polytheism (Koɹpxudolik or Politeizm) is the belief in multiple gods. Mythology often Includes a Pantheon, a collective group of gods. The term "Theology" is defined as the "doctrine or teaching about God." Within society, there are generally identified to be $6$ primary functions of religion. The concept of "Freedom of Conscience" identifies the right of citizens to believe in any religion or to not believe in any religion at all. Tolerance (Tolerantlik) is defined as broad-mindedness or patience toward other beliefs. Conversely, extremism (Ekstremizm) is derived from Latin meaning "exceeding limits" or "going to extremes," while terrorism, also from a Latin root, means "fear" or "dread." Fundamentalism refers to "basis" or "foundation," often involving a return to perceived original principles. Fanaticism (Mutaassiblik) involves an extreme adherence to oneɹs own ideas while refusing to recognize others. Prozelitism (Prozelitizm) refers to activities aimed at making a believer of one faith abandon their religion to join another, whereas missionary work (missionerlik) involves individuals sent by a religious group to promote their faith among others. Today, approximately $2/3$ of missionaries globally are representatives of Christianity.

Judaism: History, Texts, and Principles

Judaism is a monotheistic religion that originated in Palestine during the end of the $2^{nd}$ millennium BCE. Its central place of worship was historically built in Jerusalem (Ierusalim). The primary holy scripture is the Torah (Tora), a word meaning "law" or "shariat," which was revealed to the Prophet Moses (Muso a.s.) on Mount Sinai (Tur togɹi) in the form of $10$ tablets. The teachings of Judaism are based on $3$ core foundations. The name "Jew" (Yahudiy) carries meanings such as "to repent" or "those who have repented." The Talmud is another sacred text of Judaism, containing descriptions of the afterlife, and it emerged around the $2^{nd}$ century BCE.

Buddhism and Ancient Indian Traditions

Buddhism is considered the first of the world religions to emerge, founded by Siddhartha Gautama. The term "Buddha" in Sanskrit means "Lightened" or "Enlightened." The holy scripture of Buddhism is the Tripitaka (uch savat), which means "Three Baskets"; an original manuscript of this text is preserved in Sri Lanka. The core of Buddhist teaching is the "Four Noble Truths." The supreme spiritual goal in Buddhism is Nirvana, which means "extinguishing" or "fading," representing a state of spiritual purification. Buddhism is divided into two major currents: Mahayana (meaning "Great Vehicle") and Hinayana. Within Buddhist architecture, a "Stupa" refers to a temple structure. Elsewhere in Indian tradition, Brahmanism is a religion based on social caste systems. Hinduismɹs oldest sacred source is the Veda, and the cow (Sigir) is considered its sacred animal. The Vedas are divided into four parts: Rigveda (Veda of Hymns), Yajurveda (Veda of Sacrifices), Samaveda (Veda of Songs), and Atharvaveda (Veda of Spells and Charms).

Zoroastrianism and Ancient Turkic Beliefs

Zoroastrianism is associated with the prophet Zarathustra (Zardusht), whose name is sometimes interpreted as "the man leading a yellow camel." Before the spread of Islam, it was the most widespread religion in Central Asia. Its sacred text is the Avesto, which was written on $12,000$ cow skins and was compiled into a single book around the $3^{rd}$ century BCE. The central philosophy of Zoroastrianism is the struggle between good and evil, summarized by the triad: "Good thought, Good word, and Good action." The supreme god of goodness is Ahura Mazda, while the god of evil is Ahriman. Other deities include Mitra (god of luck and wealth). Ancient Turkic peoples also followed Tangrism (Tangrichilik), believing in the sky god Tangri and the goddess Umay.

Chinese and Japanese Religions

Confucianism (Konfutsiylik) was founded by Kung-fu-tzu (Kun szi), whose name means "Wise." This tradition teaches that a person of high spirituality must possess two qualities: humanity and a sense of responsibility (debt to ancestors). Daoism (Daochilik) was founded by Laozi (Lao Szi) in China and centers on the concept of "Dao" or the way. It includes concepts of nourishing the spirit and the body through fasting (chjay). Shintoism (Sintoizm) is a national religion of Japan that emerged in the $7^{th}$ century. It is known for the concept of "Kamikaze," referring to sacrificing one's life for honor, and its temples are called "gunke."

Christianity: Doctrine and Organization

Christianity emerged in Palestine during the $1^{st}$ century CE. Jesus Christ (Iso Masih) was born in Nazareth and was crucified at the age of $33$. He had $12$ apostles who were his followers. In $324$ CE, Emperor Constantine declared Christianity the state religion. The religion underwent its first major split in $1054$, dividing into Catholicism (centered in the Vatican) and Orthodoxy. Protestantism emerged later, in the $16^{th}$ century, as a movement of "protest." The Bible, the sacred source of Christianity, consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament (Yangi ahd). In Catholicism, the highest official is the Pope (the $266^{th}$ Pope is Pope Francis), and the sale of certificates for the forgiveness of sins is called an Indulgence. Catholicism also practices Celibacy (Selebat), the prohibition of marriage for clergy. In Orthodoxy, which became independent in $1448$, the highest rank is the Patriarch, and its foundations were significantly shaped in Byzantium.

Islamic History, Theology, and Law

Islam emerged in the $7^{th}$ century CE on the Arabian Peninsula. The Prophet Muhammad (s.a.v.) received the first revelation at Mount Hira in Mecca. The sacred text is the Quran, consisting of $114$ Surahs and $6236$ Ayats. The first Surah is Al-Fatiha. The Quran was compiled into a book called "Suxuf" during the time of Caliph Abu Bakr (between $632$ and $634$) in the year $633$, and later into the "Mushaf" during the reign of Caliph Uthman in $651$. The Prophet's first wife was Khadija, and his daughter Fatima was the wife of Ali. Key historical events include the Hijra (migration) in $622$, the Battle of Badr in $624$, the Battle of Uhud in $625$ (where the Prophetɹs uncle Hamza was martyred), and the Conquest of Mecca in $630$. The Ka'bah was built by Prophet Ibrahim and was established as the Qibla (direction of prayer) in the $2^{nd}$ year of the Hijra. The Rightly Guided Caliphs (Xulafoi Roshidin) were Abu Bakr ($632$-$634$), Umar ($634$-$644$), Uthman ($644$-$656$), and Ali ($656$-$661$).

Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh) and Sects

Islamic law is known as Shariat, meaning "the right path" or "the path to water," while Fiqh means "knowledge," "understanding," or "jurisprudence." Islam has five main pillars (arkonlar). Zakot, meaning "purification of wealth," is a mandatory alms-giving. There are two main branches of Islam: Sunnism and Shiism. Sunnism follows four primary legal schools (mazhabs): Hanafi ($47\%$), Shafi'i ($27\%$), Maliki ($17\%$), and Hanbali ($1.5\%$). The Hanafi school is often described as "Ahli ra'y" (people of opinion). Shiism follows the $12$ Imams and recognizes the "Akbor" as a primary source after the Quran. Kharijites (Xorijiylar) were a group that "separated" and believed it was a religious duty to oppose an unjust ruler with weapons. The Jafari mazhab is a central part of Shia school.

Tasavvuf (Sufism) and Scholarly Contributions

Sufism (Soɹfiylik or Tasavvuf), emerging in the $8^{th}$ and $9^{th}$ centuries, focuses on the love for Allah and the spiritual perfection of the individual. Its stages typically include $4$ levels. Famous scholars include Imom al-Buxoriy (the "Amir of Hadith"), whose work "Al Jome as-Sahih" transformed the $9^{th}$ century into the "Golden Age of Hadith." There are $6$ universally recognized famous Hadith scholars. Other notable figures include Imom Termiziy (author of "Ash-Shamoil al-Nabaviya"), Imom Gɹazzoliy (author of "Mukoshafatulqulub," lived $1058$-$1111$), and Az-Zamakhshariy (author of "Al-Kashshof," "Al-Mufassal"). Sufi orders in Central Asia include the Yassaviya (founded by Ahmad Yassavi in the $12^{th}$ century, author of "Devoni Hikmat"), the Naqshbandiya (founded by Bahouddin Naqshband in the $14^{th}$ century), and the Kubraviya (founded by Najmiddin Kubro in the $13^{th}$ century). Ibn Sino is famously known as "Shaykh-ur Rais" (Leader of Scholars).

Religion and Law in Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan identifies as a secular state where citizens of different nationalities and religions live in harmony. The Uzbekistan Constitution addresses the right to freedom of conscience in Article 31. The first "Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations" was adopted in $1998$ (with modern versions in $2023$). The Law on Fighting Terrorism was adopted on December $15$, $2000$. There are currently $16$ registered religious confessions in Uzbekistan. The Muslim Board of Uzbekistan was established in $1943$. Tashkent was named the "Capital of Islamic Culture" in $2007$, and Bukhara received the same honor in $2020$. The Strategy of Actions for the development of Uzbekistan includes a section (Section $5$) dedicated to religious tolerance and inter-ethnic harmony.

Modern Religious Movements and Global Issues

New religious movements began to appear prominently in the $1970$s. These include groups like Baha'i (founded in Iran by the Bab and Baha'u'llah), Ahmadiyya, and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (founded in the USA). The Baha'i international headquarters, the Universal House of Justice, is located in Haifa, Israel. Some groups are classified as destructive sects (Destruktiv sekta), which can cause physical or psychological harm to their members. P. Sidorov famously described these as "mass psycho-biological weapons of destruction." In the modern era, the concept of "Cyberspace" (Kibermakon) was first introduced by the Canadian-author William Gibson in $1982$. Global issues like globalization (Globallashuv) refer to the integration of economic, political, and religious systems. To protect against negative influences, the concept of "Ideological Immunity" (Mafkuraviy immunitet) is promoted to shield individuals and society from alien or harmful ideas.

Questions & Discussion

Q: Who is the author of "Comparative Mythology"?A: Max Müller.

Q: What is the meaning of the word "Nirvana"?A: Extinguishing or fading out.

Q: When did the terrorist attacks on the Twin Towers in the USA occur?A: In $2001$.

Q: Which holy book was written on $12,000$ cow skins?A: Avesto.

Q: Who is the only companion mentioned by name in the Quran?A: Zayd ibn Xorisa.

Q: In which year did the Battle of Badr take place?A: In $624$ CE.

Q: What is the meaning of the term "Shariat" in Arabic?A: The straight path or the path leading to water.

Q: Which scholar is known as "Amir of Hadith"?A: Imom al-Buxoriy.

Q: How many verses (Ayats) are there in the Quran?A: $6236$.

Q: Which city is home to the Baha'i "Universal House of Justice"?A: Haifa.

Q: When was the Uzbekistan Law on Fighting Terrorism adopted?A: December $15$, $2000$.